File #2550: "2019_Book_LiabilityForAntitrustLawInfrin.pdf"
Testo
1|Preface|6
1|Contents|8
1|Contributors|10
1|Abbreviations|12
1|Part I: Liability for Antitrust Law Infringements|18
1|1: International Report|19
2|1.1 Introduction|19
2|1.2 Antitrust Sanctions: Rules and Procedures|21
3|1.2.1 The Goals Behind Sanctions|21
3|1.2.2 Different Legal Fields, Different Targets, Different Kind of Sanctions|24
3|1.2.3 A Quick Look Beyond Competition Law: Sanctioning of Business-Related Infringements|30
3|1.2.4 The Targets of the Sanction|31
4|1.2.4.1 Corporate Liability for Individual Actions|31
4|1.2.4.2 Within the Corporation: Individual Sanctions Against Managers and Employees|34
5|1.2.4.2.1 Criminal and Administrative Individual Sanctions|34
5|1.2.4.2.2 Civil Liability of Directors|41
5|1.2.4.2.3 Civil Liability of Employees|46
4|1.2.4.3 Beyond Corporate Veil: Parental Liability|47
4|1.2.4.4 Beyond the Corporate Veil: Associations of Undertakings|58
3|1.2.5 Calculating the Sanction|64
3|1.2.6 Investigations and Sanctions Under Different Laws Against the Same Action: The Non Bis Idem Principle|68
3|1.2.7 Coordinating Procedures Involving Corporations and Individuals|73
3|1.2.8 Sanctions and Compliance Programmes|73
3|1.2.9 Leniency in Countries with Both Individual and Corporate Liability|76
2|1.3 Are Existing Sanctions Efficient/Sufficient?|79
2|1.4 The Way Forward, Need for Change?|85
2|LIDC Resolution|96
1|2: Austria|100
2|2.1 Introduction|100
2|2.2 Competition Law Enforcement in Austria|101
3|2.2.1 Enforcement by Competition Authorities|101
3|2.2.2 Criminal Sanctions|103
3|2.2.3 Private Enforcement|104
4|2.2.3.1 Standing|105
4|2.2.3.2 Damages|106
4|2.2.3.3 Fault|106
2|2.3 The Company Infringing Competition Law|107
3|2.3.1 Cartel Fines|107
4|2.3.1.1 Attribution of Natural Persons|108
4|2.3.1.2 Attribution of Subsidiaries´/Parent Companies´ Turnover|109
3|2.3.2 Criminal Sanctions|109
4|2.3.2.1 Requirements of Criminal Sanctions|109
4|2.3.2.2 Relationship Between Criminal Sanctions and Cartel Fines|111
3|2.3.3 Actions for Damages|112
2|2.4 The Parent Company|113
3|2.4.1 Cartel Fines|113
3|2.4.2 Criminal Sanctions|115
3|2.4.3 Action for Damages|115
2|2.5 The Management and Employees|117
3|2.5.1 Cartel Fines|117
3|2.5.2 Criminal Sanctions|117
3|2.5.3 Actions for Damages|118
4|2.5.3.1 Claims by the Company|118
4|2.5.3.2 Claims by the Aggrieved Party|120
2|2.6 Assessment|121
1|3: Belgium|123
2|3.1 Stock Taking|123
3|3.1.1 Administrative Enforcement of Competition Law|123
3|3.1.2 Private Enforcement of Competition Law|124
3|3.1.3 Criminal Enforcement of Competition Law|125
4|3.1.3.1 General Framework of Enforcement of Criminal Law Against Legal Entities|125
4|3.1.3.2 No General Criminal Enforcement of Competition Rules|126
4|3.1.3.3 Broad Range of Sanctions Applicable in Other Business-Related Breaches of Law|127
2|3.2 Sanctions|128
3|3.2.1 Deterrence as the Main Goal of Competition Law Sanctions|128
3|3.2.2 Determination/Calculation of Sanctions|129
4|3.2.2.1 Sanctions for Undertakings Under Competition Rules|129
4|3.2.2.2 Sanctions for Individuals Under Competition Rules|130
4|3.2.2.3 Criminal Liability for Procedural Breaches of Competition Rules|131
4|3.2.2.4 Sanctions Under General Criminal Law|131
3|3.2.3 Non Bis In Idem|132
2|3.3 Parent Liability|133
3|3.3.1 Liability of the Parent Company for the Wrongdoing of Its Subsidiary|133
4|3.3.1.1 Liability for Administrative Fines|133
4|3.3.1.2 Liability for Civil Damages|134
3|3.3.2 Associations of Undertakings|135
4|3.3.2.1 Allocation of the Liability Between Associations of Undertakings and Their Members|135
4|3.3.2.2 Request of Financial Contribution from Member Undertakings to Pay the Fine|135
3|3.3.3 Employee/Director Indirect Financial Liability|136
4|3.3.3.1 Directors|136
4|3.3.3.2 Employees|137
2|3.4 Enforcement of Competition Law in Practice|138
3|3.4.1 Administrative Enforcement Is Dominant|138
3|3.4.2 Private Enforcement Plays a Key Role for Vertical Infringements|138
3|3.4.3 Coordination of the Imposition of Sanctions by Different Institutions|139
1|4: France|140
2|4.1 General Principles on Sanctions Against Anti-competitive Practices|140
3|4.1.1 Tools Available Against Anti-competitive Infringements|141
4|4.1.1.1 Sanctions Against Anti-competitive Practices Imposed by the French Competition Authority|141
5|4.1.1.1.1 Financial Penalties|141
5|4.1.1.1.2 Non-financial Penalties|143
4|4.1.1.2 Sanctions Against Anti-competitive Practices Before Civil Courts|143
4|4.1.1.3 Sanctions Against Anti-competitive Practices Before Criminal Courts|145
4|4.1.1.4 Sanctions of Anti-competitive Practices on Grounds Other Than Competition Law|145
4|4.1.1.5 Hierarchy Among Sanctions|146
3|4.1.2 Effectiveness and Efficiency of Sanctions|146
4|4.1.2.1 Effectiveness of Sanctions|146
4|4.1.2.2 Efficiency of Sanctions Against Anti-competitive Practices: Reiteration|148
4|4.1.2.3 Negotiated Procedures Developed by the FCA|150
5|4.1.2.3.1 The Leniency Procedure|150
5|4.1.2.3.2 The Commitments Procedure|151
5|4.1.2.3.3 The Settlement Procedure|152
2|4.2 Special Cases of Liability for Anti-competitive Practices|153
3|4.2.1 The Liability of Parents´ Companies and Associations of Undertakings|153
4|4.2.1.1 The Liability of Parent Companies for the Actions of Their Subsidiaries|153
4|4.2.1.2 The Liability of Association and Grouping of Undertakings|155
3|4.2.2 The Liability of Managers and Employees for Anti-competitive Practices|156
4|4.2.2.1 Criminal Liability|156
4|4.2.2.2 Civil Liability|158
2|4.3 Conclusion|160
1|5: Germany|162
2|5.1 Introduction|162
2|5.2 Administrative Proceedings|164
2|5.3 Regulatory Fines|164
3|5.3.1 Legal Persons and Associations of Persons|165
4|5.3.1.1 Corporate Offenders|165
4|5.3.1.2 Parent Companies|168
4|5.3.1.3 Associations of Undertakings|170
3|5.3.2 Representatives|170
3|5.3.3 Procedure|171
2|5.4 Criminal Fines/Imprisonment|172
3|5.4.1 Bid-Rigging Offence|172
3|5.4.2 Procedure|173
2|5.5 Damages|174
3|5.5.1 External Liability|175
3|5.5.2 Internal Liability|177
2|5.6 Reform|179
3|5.6.1 Purely Administrative System|179
3|5.6.2 Individual Criminal Liability|180
3|5.6.3 Corporate Criminal Liability|180
2|5.7 Conclusion|181
1|6: Hong Kong|183
2|6.1 Overview and Summary|183
2|6.2 The Legal Position in Hong Kong|184
3|6.2.1 The Statutory Regime|184
3|6.2.2 Criminal Offences|184
3|6.2.3 Types of Sanctions|184
3|6.2.4 Goals of Imposing Competition Law Sanctions|185
3|6.2.5 Determination and Calculation of Sanctions|185
3|6.2.6 Enforcement|187
3|6.2.7 Parent Liability|187
3|6.2.8 Association of Undertakings|188
3|6.2.9 Individual Sanctions on CEOs or Employees|188
3|6.2.10 Leniency Agreements|192
3|6.2.11 Indirect Financial Liability of Directors and Employees|192
2|6.3 The Way Forward, Need for Change?|192
1|7: Hungary|194
2|7.1 Stock Taking|194
3|7.1.1 The Rules|194
3|7.1.2 Determination and Calculation of Sanctions|197
4|7.1.2.1 Rules on How to Determine the Amount of Fines|197
5|7.1.2.1.1 Competition Act|198
5|7.1.2.1.2 Public Procurement Act|198
5|7.1.2.1.3 Criminal Code|199
5|7.1.2.1.4 Legal Persons Criminality Act|200
5|7.1.2.1.5 Antitrust Fine Notice|201
4|7.1.2.2 Enforcement|202
4|7.1.2.3 Parental Liability|204
4|7.1.2.4 Associations of Undertakings|206
4|7.1.2.5 Individual Sanctions on CEOs and Employees|209
4|7.1.2.6 Employee/Director Indirect Financial Liability|210
2|7.2 Are Sanctions Efficient/Sufficient?|211
2|7.3 The Way Forward|217
1|8: Italy|218
2|8.1 Introduction|218
3|8.1.1 Rules of Law|219
3|8.1.2 Criminal and Business Law|219
2|8.2 Sanctions Regime|221
3|8.2.1 Brief Overview|221
4|8.2.1.1 The Italian Antitrust Law (287/90)|221
4|8.2.1.2 The Italian Guidelines on Sanctions 2014|221
4|8.2.1.3 Law No. 689/1981|225
3|8.2.2 Types of Sanctions: Administrative Sanctions, Leniency Programme and Civil Damages|226
4|8.2.2.1 Interim Measures|226
4|8.2.2.2 Sanctions for Cartels and Leniency Programme|227
4|8.2.2.3 Sanctions for Abuse of Dominance Position|228
4|8.2.2.4 Civil Damages|228
3|8.2.3 Punitive and Criminal Sanctions|228
2|8.3 Liability|229
3|8.3.1 Parent Liability|230
3|8.3.2 Associations of Undertakings|231
2|8.4 Conclusions|232
1|9: Spain|234
2|9.1 Introduction|234
2|9.2 Administrative Proceedings|235
2|9.3 Regulatory Fines|236
3|9.3.1 Parent Liability|239
3|9.3.2 Associations of Undertakings|241
3|9.3.3 Representatives|241
3|9.3.4 Determination and Calculation of Sanctions|243
3|9.3.5 Mitigating and Aggravating Factors|245
2|9.4 Criminal Fines and Imprisonment|246
2|9.5 Damages|247
1|10: Sweden|249
2|10.1 Stock Taking|249
3|10.1.1 The Rules|249
4|10.1.1.1 Nullity|250
4|10.1.1.2 Fines|250
4|10.1.1.3 Trading Prohibitions|252
4|10.1.1.4 Damages|252
4|10.1.1.5 Sanctions Imposed for Other Business-Related Breaches of Law|253
5|10.1.1.5.1 Tax Offences|253
5|10.1.1.5.2 False Accounting|254
5|10.1.1.5.3 Insider Trading|254
3|10.1.2 The Goals|254
3|10.1.3 Determination/Calculation of Sanctions|255
3|10.1.4 Enforcement|256
3|10.1.5 Parental Liability|256
3|10.1.6 Associations of Undertakings|257
3|10.1.7 Individual Sanctions on CEOs/Employees|258
2|10.2 Are Present Sanctions Efficient/Sufficient?|259
2|10.3 The Way Forward|260
1|11: Switzerland|263
2|11.1 Stock Taking|263
3|11.1.1 The Rules Concerning Competition Law Sanctions|263
3|11.1.2 The Goals of Competition Law Sanctions|266
3|11.1.3 Determination and Calculation of Competition Law Sanctions|266
3|11.1.4 Enforcement of Competition Law and of Competition|268
3|11.1.5 Attribution of Liability to a Parent Company|269
3|11.1.6 Attribution of Liability to an Association of Undertakings|270
3|11.1.7 Sanctions Against Individuals|271
3|11.1.8 Indirect Financial Liability of an Employee or a Director|273
2|11.2 Recent Sanctions Imposed by COMCO|273
2|11.3 The Way Forward, Need for Change?|274
1|12: United Kingdom|276
2|12.1 Overview and Summary|276
2|12.2 The Legal Position in the UK|277
3|12.2.1 Article 101/102 Equivalents|277
3|12.2.2 Criminal Offences|278
3|12.2.3 Relationship Between the Civil and Criminal Prohibitions|281
3|12.2.4 Competition Authorities and Their Priorities|282
3|12.2.5 Ne Bis in Idem|284
3|12.2.6 Sanctions Against Undertakings|285
3|12.2.7 Sanctions Against Individuals|288
3|12.2.8 The Relationship Between Sanctions Against Individuals and Undertakings|290
3|12.2.9 Additional Sanctions for Non-cooperation|291
3|12.2.10 Competition Damages and Their Relationship to the Penalty Regime|293
3|12.2.11 Parental Liability|294
2|12.3 Are Present Sanctions Efficient/Sufficient?|296
3|12.3.1 Largest Sanctions|296
3|12.3.2 Does Competition Enforcement Pass the CMA´s 10:1 Test?|298
3|12.3.3 Are the British Public Aware of Competition Law?|299
3|12.3.4 Do the British Public Approve of How Competition Law Is Enforced?|301
3|12.3.5 Is There Sufficient Enforcement?|301
3|12.3.6 Are the Right Cases Attracting the Most Serious Sanctions?|303
3|12.3.7 Does the Sequential Enforcement of the Criminal and Civil Rules Cause Harm?|304
3|12.3.8 Can an Act Fall Foul of the Cartel Offence but Not Breach Civil Competition Law?|305
2|12.4 The Way Forward, Need for Change?|306
3|12.4.1 The Cartel Offence Should Be Reserved for Only the Most Egregious Cases|306
3|12.4.2 Professional Sanctions (Including Director Disqualification) Should Be Sought in All Cases|307
3|12.4.3 Recidivism of Individuals|308
3|12.4.4 Monitoring Changes in Awareness as a Result of Enforcement Activity|309
3|12.4.5 Failure to Prevent Breaches of Competition Law|309
3|12.4.6 An EU-Wide Cartel Offence?|310
3|12.4.7 Brexit|311
1|13: Ukraine|313
2|13.1 Introduction|313
2|13.2 General Rules|314
2|13.3 Sanction in Competition Law|316
3|13.3.1 Goals|316
3|13.3.2 Types of Fines|316
3|13.3.3 Compensation for Damages|318
3|13.3.4 Other Types of Sanctions|319
3|13.3.5 Criminal Law Sanctions of Companies|319
2|13.4 Calculation of Sanctions|320
3|13.4.1 Methodology for Calculating|320
3|13.4.2 Role of the AMCU in Calculating Sanctions|321
2|13.5 Enforcement|322
3|13.5.1 Dominant Liability|322
3|13.5.2 Leniency Program|322
3|13.5.3 Parent Liability and Associations of Undertakings|323
3|13.5.4 Individual Sanctions Against Employees and Compliance Programs|325
2|13.6 Present Cases|326
2|13.7 Need for Changes|328
2|13.8 Conclusion|328
1|Part II: Protection of IP Rights in Distribution|330
1|14: International Report|331
2|14.1 Introduction|331
2|14.2 Background|332
2|14.3 General Overview|334
2|14.4 Protection of Trademarks and Brands|334
2|14.5 Protecting Brands Using Distribution Management|336
3|14.5.1 Selective Distribution Networks|336
3|14.5.2 E-commerce and Online Platforms|338
3|14.5.3 Geo-blocking|339
3|14.5.4 Exhaustion|340
4|14.5.4.1 General Conditions and Limitations|341
4|14.5.4.2 Trigger|342
4|14.5.4.3 Digital Goods|343
4|14.5.4.4 Burden of Proof|344
2|14.6 Protecting Brands by Controlling After-Sales Services|344
3|14.6.1 Guarantee|344
3|14.6.2 Right to Repair|346
3|14.6.3 Reverse Engineering|348
3|14.6.4 Software (and More) as a Service|349
2|14.7 Competition Law and the Abuse of Intellectual Property Rights|350
2|14.8 Protecting Brands Using Unfair Competition Law|351
2|14.9 Protecting Brands by Technical or Factual Behaviour|352
2|14.10 Consumer Protection|352
2|14.11 Balancing Consumer Interests|353
2|LIDC Resolution|355
1|15: Austria|356
2|15.1 Introduction|356
2|15.2 Scope of Legal Protection of Intellectual Property Rights|357
3|15.2.1 Principles on Trademarks in Austrian Law|357
3|15.2.2 Use of Trademarks and Legal Implications|358
3|15.2.3 Geo-blocking|360
3|15.2.4 Brand Protection on e-Commerce Platforms|360
3|15.2.5 De-compilation|360
2|15.3 Limitations of Legal Protection|361
3|15.3.1 Exhaustion of Trademarks|361
3|15.3.2 Geographical Scope|362
3|15.3.3 Burden of Proof|363
3|15.3.4 Digital Goods|364
2|15.4 Balance of Interest: IP Right Owners/Consumers|365
3|15.4.1 Protection of Consumer´s Rights|365
3|15.4.2 Consumer Rights and European Law|366
3|15.4.3 Unfair Competition and Its relation to Consumer Rights|367
2|15.5 Limitation for Trademark Owners|369
1|16: Belgium|370
2|16.1 Introduction|370
2|16.2 Exhaustion and Other Limitations of Legal Protection|371
3|16.2.1 Regional Exhaustion and Lack of International Exhaustion|371
3|16.2.2 Criteria for the Application of Exhaustion|376
3|16.2.3 Exceptions to Exhaustion and Other Peculiarities|380
4|16.2.3.1 Trademark Rights|380
5|16.2.3.1.1 Consent|380
5|16.2.3.1.2 Essential Function of a Trademark|383
5|16.2.3.1.3 Advertising Prerogatives|389
4|16.2.3.2 Patent Rights|391
5|16.2.3.2.1 Consent|391
5|16.2.3.2.2 Specific subject-matter of a Patent|392
5|16.2.3.2.3 Reverse Engineering and Decompilation|395
4|16.2.3.3 Copyright|396
5|16.2.3.3.1 Extension to Intangible Works, Including Services|396
5|16.2.3.3.2 Consequences of the Copyright Exhaustion Regime for Price Discrimination Strategies|399
5|16.2.3.3.3 Approaches to Geo-Blocking|401
3|16.2.4 Right to Repair and Product Liability|402
3|16.2.5 Unfair Commercial Practices and Third-Party Complicity to Breach of Contract|404
2|16.3 Concluding Remarks|405
1|17: Brazil|408
2|17.1 Brazilian Legal Landscape for IPRs|408
2|17.2 IPRs: Scope of Protection, Geo-Blocking, and Restriction of Online Sales|409
2|17.3 Limitations of Legal Protections|413
2|17.4 Conclusion|420
1|18: Czech Republic|422
2|18.1 Introduction|422
2|18.2 Scope of Legal Protection|423
3|18.2.1 The Trademark Act: Exclusive Rights of the Trademark Owner of a Brand|424
3|18.2.2 The Czech Copyright Act: Exclusive Rights of the Author of a Brand|425
2|18.3 Limitations of Legal Protection|426
3|18.3.1 The Czech Trademark Act: Limitation of Exclusive Rights and Exhaustion|427
3|18.3.2 Copyright Act: Limitation of Exclusive Rights and Exhaustion|430
2|18.4 Balance of Interests|431
2|18.5 Conclusion|435
1|19: Hong Kong|437
2|19.1 Scope of Legal Protection of IP Rights in Hong Kong|437
3|19.1.1 Trade Marks|437
3|19.1.2 Copyright|439
3|19.1.3 Registered Designs|440
3|19.1.4 Patents|440
3|19.1.5 Confidential Information|441
3|19.1.6 Private Information|441
3|19.1.7 Layout Designs|442
2|19.2 Exhaustion of Rights|442
3|19.2.1 Trade Marks|442
3|19.2.2 Copyright|443
3|19.2.3 Layout Design|444
2|19.3 Reverse Engineering|444
1|20: Hungary|446
2|20.1 Introduction|446
2|20.2 The Scope of Legal Protection of Intellectual Property Rights in Hungary|447
3|20.2.1 The Hungarian Trademark Act (Act 11 of 1997)|447
3|20.2.2 The Unfair Market Practices Act/Competition Law (Act 57 of 1996)|448
3|20.2.3 The Hungarian Patent Act (Act 33 of 1995)|448
3|20.2.4 The Act on the Protection of Utility Models (Act 38 of 1991)|449
3|20.2.5 The Design Act (Act 48 of 2001)|449
3|20.2.6 The Copyright Act (Act 76 of 1999)|450
2|20.3 Protection of Intellectual Property Rights in Matters of Distribution|450
3|20.3.1 After-Sales Matters|450
3|20.3.2 Geo-Blocking|451
3|20.3.3 E-commerce Platforms|452
3|20.3.4 Reverse Engineering and De-compilation|453
2|20.4 Limitations of Legal Protection Regarding Intellectual Property Rights|454
3|20.4.1 Exhaustion|454
4|20.4.1.1 Scope of Exhaustion in the Trademark and in the Patent Act|455
4|20.4.1.2 The Geographical Scope of Exhaustion|456
4|20.4.1.3 Exhaustion in the Case of Digital Goods|457
4|20.4.1.4 The Matter of Harmonization Regarding Exhaustion Rules in the EU: Balance Between the Rights of Consumers and Right H...|458
3|20.4.2 Antitrust Law and IP Rights|459
3|20.4.3 Limitations Imposed on Downstream Markets: Software-as-a-Service|459
2|20.5 Consumer Interests in Competition Law|460
3|20.5.1 A Reversal of the Burden of Proof|460
3|20.5.2 Aftermarket Repair Considerations|461
3|20.5.3 Product Liability|461
2|20.6 Balancing Consumer and Market Interests in Legislation|462
3|20.6.1 Direct Regulations|462
3|20.6.2 Indirect Regulations|463
3|20.6.3 Relevant Case Law|463
1|21: Italy|465
2|21.1 Scope of Legal Protection|465
3|21.1.1 Legally Protected Interests of IP Right Holders in the Italian Jurisdiction|465
3|21.1.2 Standards of Protection of Brands Available to Holders of IP Rights Depending on Distribution|466
3|21.1.3 Specific After-Sales Services Reserved to the Holder of IP Rights by Law|467
3|21.1.4 Protection and Terms of Usage of a Trademark by the Licensees|468
3|21.1.5 Geo-blocking and Its Limitations|469
3|21.1.6 Brand Protection on e-Commerce Platforms|470
3|21.1.7 Protection Against Reverse Engineering|471
2|21.2 Limitations on Legal Protection|472
3|21.2.1 The Principle of Exhaustion|472
3|21.2.2 The Geographical Scope of Exhaustion|473
3|21.2.3 The Application of the Principle of Exhaustion to Digital Goods|474
3|21.2.4 International Agreements and the Exhaustion of Intellectual Property Rights|475
3|21.2.5 Limitations on Brand Protection and Principle of Exhaustion|475
3|21.2.6 The Limitations on Providing Product, Including Software, ``as a Service´´|475
3|21.2.7 Burden of Proof for the Violation of Consumer Interests|476
3|21.2.8 The Right to Repair, the Guarantees, and Product Liability|477
2|21.3 Balance of Interests|478
3|21.3.1 Consumers´ Rights in the Italian Legal System|478
3|21.3.2 Balance of Interests Between IP Right Holders and Consumers|479
1|22: Romania|480
2|22.1 Introduction|480
2|22.2 The Scope of Legal Protection of Intellectual Property Rights in Romania|481
3|22.2.1 The Specific Enactments|481
3|22.2.2 Protection of Interests Beyond the Limits of Specific Rights|483
2|22.3 Protection of Intellectual Property Rights in Matters of Distribution|484
3|22.3.1 After-Sales Matters|485
3|22.3.2 Geo-blocking|486
3|22.3.3 E-commerce Platforms|488
3|22.3.4 Reverse Engineering and Decompilation|492
2|22.4 Limitations of Legal Protection Regarding Intellectual Property Rights|494
3|22.4.1 Exhaustion of Rights|494
4|22.4.1.1 Substantial Scope of Exhaustion|494
4|22.4.1.2 Mechanism of Exhaustion|495
4|22.4.1.3 Limits of Exhaustion|496
4|22.4.1.4 Exhaustion and Digital Goods|496
4|22.4.1.5 Exhaustion and Protection of Brands|497
2|22.5 Antitrust Law and IP Rights|498
2|22.6 Protection of Consumer Interests|500
3|22.6.1 Protected Interests and Burden of Proof|500
3|22.6.2 Right to Repair and Post-sale Services|501
3|22.6.3 Relevance of Consumers´ Interests for the Protection of Intellectual Property Rights|503
4|22.6.3.1 Constitutional Relevance of Consumers´ Interests|503
4|22.6.3.2 Consumers´ Interests in the Courts|503
4|22.6.3.3 Consumers´ Interests in Competition Law|505
4|22.6.3.4 Protection of Intellectual Property Rights and Consumer Welfare/Consumer Surplus|506
1|23: Spain|507
2|23.1 Intellectual Property Rights Protection in Spain|507
3|23.1.1 Overview of the General Aspects|507
3|23.1.2 Protected Interests of the Holders of Trademarks in Spain: Domestic and International Framework|509
4|23.1.2.1 List of Interests Protected for Trademarks Holders Under the STA|509
4|23.1.2.2 Requirements for Registering the Trademark Under the STA|510
2|23.2 Spanish Legal Framework of IP Right Protection Limitations|511
3|23.2.1 Exhaustion Doctrine in Spanish IP Protection System: General Aspects|511
3|23.2.2 Exhaustion Doctrine Under the STA: Geographical, Temporal, and Substantive Scope|511
4|23.2.2.1 Other Limitations Under the STA|513
3|23.2.3 Protection of the Trademarks in Distribution Networks and Parallel Trade Under the STA and SUCA|513
4|23.2.3.1 Trademark Rights in On- and Offline Distribution and Resales Under the STA: Licenses of Use and Licenses of Exploitat...|514
4|23.2.3.2 Digital Goods and Digital Distribution: ``First Sales Theory´´ and ``First Implied License Theory´´ Under the Spanish...|516
3|23.2.4 Reverse Engineering, Geoblocking, E-commerce Aspects, and Protection of IP Rights in Spain|517
4|23.2.4.1 Reverse Engineering and IP Right Holders: Spanish Civil and Penal Protection|517
4|23.2.4.2 Geoblocking and IP Rights Under the Spanish Legal System|518
4|23.2.4.3 E-commerce Platforms and Trademark Rights Holders: Limitations Against Providers|519
2|23.3 Spanish Legal Framework of Competition Law, IP Rights, and Consumer Protection: Balance of Interests|519
3|23.3.1 Spanish Constitution and Consumer Protection|520
3|23.3.2 Protection and Remedies for Consumers Under the Spanish Legal Framework: Public and Private Law Aspects|521
4|23.3.2.1 Specific Aspects of Consumer Protection and IP Right Protection|522
5|23.3.2.1.1 After-Sales Service Liability, the Right to Repair, and Other Related Aspects|522
5|23.3.2.1.2 Product Liability in Digital Goods: ``Breaking of Seals´´ and Software Replacement and Updates|523
3|23.3.3 More Economic Approach and More Based Effects Approach: Balance of the Interests of Consumers, Competition, and IP Righ...|524
2|23.4 Final Remarks|525
1|24: Sweden|526
2|24.1 Background|526
3|24.1.1 Influence of European Law|526
2|24.2 Overview of the Legal Framework|527
3|24.2.1 Consumer Protection, Unfair Business Practices and Competition Law|528
3|24.2.2 The Swedish Trademarks Act|529
3|24.2.3 Protection of Brands in Swedish Marketing Law|531
4|24.2.3.1 Comparative Advertising|531
4|24.2.3.2 Misleading Imitations|532
2|24.3 The Exhaustion Doctrine and Trademarks´ in Relation to Competition Law|534
3|24.3.1 Parallel Imports and the Exhaustion Doctrine|534
3|24.3.2 Intellectual Property Law in Relation to Competition Law|535
3|24.3.3 Judgment of the Patent and Market Court of Appeal of 29 June 2018, Reference PMT 1988-17, Konkurrensverket v Swedish Ma...|536
3|24.3.4 To What Extent Does Trademark Law Allow the Trademark Proprietor to Determine the Terms and Usage of the Products?|537
3|24.3.5 Warranty Clauses|538
3|24.3.6 The Possibility to Protect Brands on E-Commerce Platforms|540
3|24.3.7 Striking a Fair Balance Between IPRs and Competing Interests|541
3|24.3.8 Consumer Protection: Product Liability, Repairs and Warranties|543
2|24.4 On the Topic of Digital Copyright|545
2|24.5 Some Prospective Outlooks|547
1|25: Switzerland|548
2|25.1 Introduction|548
2|25.2 Exhaustion of Intellectual Property Rights in Switzerland|549
3|25.2.1 A Critical Time in the 1990s|549
3|25.2.2 Exhaustion of Trademarks|550
3|25.2.3 Exhaustion of Copyrights|553
4|25.2.3.1 International Exhaustion|553
4|25.2.3.2 Contractual and Other Limitations to Exhaustion|554
3|25.2.4 Exhaustion of Patents|555
3|25.2.5 Exhaustion of Design Rights|558
3|25.2.6 Exhaustion of Variety Protection|558
2|25.3 Parallel Imports and Swiss Antitrust|559
3|25.3.1 Swiss Antitrust and Intellectual Property|559
3|25.3.2 The Swiss Rules on Vertical Restraints|560
2|25.4 Parallel Imports and Unfair Competition|562
3|25.4.1 Protection of Distribution Networks?|562
3|25.4.2 Protection of Users|565
2|25.5 Economics of Exhaustion and Parallel Trade|566
2|25.6 Introducing a WTO Regulation of Exhaustion?|570
2|25.7 Conclusions|573
1|Contents|8
1|Contributors|10
1|Abbreviations|12
1|Part I: Liability for Antitrust Law Infringements|18
1|1: International Report|19
2|1.1 Introduction|19
2|1.2 Antitrust Sanctions: Rules and Procedures|21
3|1.2.1 The Goals Behind Sanctions|21
3|1.2.2 Different Legal Fields, Different Targets, Different Kind of Sanctions|24
3|1.2.3 A Quick Look Beyond Competition Law: Sanctioning of Business-Related Infringements|30
3|1.2.4 The Targets of the Sanction|31
4|1.2.4.1 Corporate Liability for Individual Actions|31
4|1.2.4.2 Within the Corporation: Individual Sanctions Against Managers and Employees|34
5|1.2.4.2.1 Criminal and Administrative Individual Sanctions|34
5|1.2.4.2.2 Civil Liability of Directors|41
5|1.2.4.2.3 Civil Liability of Employees|46
4|1.2.4.3 Beyond Corporate Veil: Parental Liability|47
4|1.2.4.4 Beyond the Corporate Veil: Associations of Undertakings|58
3|1.2.5 Calculating the Sanction|64
3|1.2.6 Investigations and Sanctions Under Different Laws Against the Same Action: The Non Bis Idem Principle|68
3|1.2.7 Coordinating Procedures Involving Corporations and Individuals|73
3|1.2.8 Sanctions and Compliance Programmes|73
3|1.2.9 Leniency in Countries with Both Individual and Corporate Liability|76
2|1.3 Are Existing Sanctions Efficient/Sufficient?|79
2|1.4 The Way Forward, Need for Change?|85
2|LIDC Resolution|96
1|2: Austria|100
2|2.1 Introduction|100
2|2.2 Competition Law Enforcement in Austria|101
3|2.2.1 Enforcement by Competition Authorities|101
3|2.2.2 Criminal Sanctions|103
3|2.2.3 Private Enforcement|104
4|2.2.3.1 Standing|105
4|2.2.3.2 Damages|106
4|2.2.3.3 Fault|106
2|2.3 The Company Infringing Competition Law|107
3|2.3.1 Cartel Fines|107
4|2.3.1.1 Attribution of Natural Persons|108
4|2.3.1.2 Attribution of Subsidiaries´/Parent Companies´ Turnover|109
3|2.3.2 Criminal Sanctions|109
4|2.3.2.1 Requirements of Criminal Sanctions|109
4|2.3.2.2 Relationship Between Criminal Sanctions and Cartel Fines|111
3|2.3.3 Actions for Damages|112
2|2.4 The Parent Company|113
3|2.4.1 Cartel Fines|113
3|2.4.2 Criminal Sanctions|115
3|2.4.3 Action for Damages|115
2|2.5 The Management and Employees|117
3|2.5.1 Cartel Fines|117
3|2.5.2 Criminal Sanctions|117
3|2.5.3 Actions for Damages|118
4|2.5.3.1 Claims by the Company|118
4|2.5.3.2 Claims by the Aggrieved Party|120
2|2.6 Assessment|121
1|3: Belgium|123
2|3.1 Stock Taking|123
3|3.1.1 Administrative Enforcement of Competition Law|123
3|3.1.2 Private Enforcement of Competition Law|124
3|3.1.3 Criminal Enforcement of Competition Law|125
4|3.1.3.1 General Framework of Enforcement of Criminal Law Against Legal Entities|125
4|3.1.3.2 No General Criminal Enforcement of Competition Rules|126
4|3.1.3.3 Broad Range of Sanctions Applicable in Other Business-Related Breaches of Law|127
2|3.2 Sanctions|128
3|3.2.1 Deterrence as the Main Goal of Competition Law Sanctions|128
3|3.2.2 Determination/Calculation of Sanctions|129
4|3.2.2.1 Sanctions for Undertakings Under Competition Rules|129
4|3.2.2.2 Sanctions for Individuals Under Competition Rules|130
4|3.2.2.3 Criminal Liability for Procedural Breaches of Competition Rules|131
4|3.2.2.4 Sanctions Under General Criminal Law|131
3|3.2.3 Non Bis In Idem|132
2|3.3 Parent Liability|133
3|3.3.1 Liability of the Parent Company for the Wrongdoing of Its Subsidiary|133
4|3.3.1.1 Liability for Administrative Fines|133
4|3.3.1.2 Liability for Civil Damages|134
3|3.3.2 Associations of Undertakings|135
4|3.3.2.1 Allocation of the Liability Between Associations of Undertakings and Their Members|135
4|3.3.2.2 Request of Financial Contribution from Member Undertakings to Pay the Fine|135
3|3.3.3 Employee/Director Indirect Financial Liability|136
4|3.3.3.1 Directors|136
4|3.3.3.2 Employees|137
2|3.4 Enforcement of Competition Law in Practice|138
3|3.4.1 Administrative Enforcement Is Dominant|138
3|3.4.2 Private Enforcement Plays a Key Role for Vertical Infringements|138
3|3.4.3 Coordination of the Imposition of Sanctions by Different Institutions|139
1|4: France|140
2|4.1 General Principles on Sanctions Against Anti-competitive Practices|140
3|4.1.1 Tools Available Against Anti-competitive Infringements|141
4|4.1.1.1 Sanctions Against Anti-competitive Practices Imposed by the French Competition Authority|141
5|4.1.1.1.1 Financial Penalties|141
5|4.1.1.1.2 Non-financial Penalties|143
4|4.1.1.2 Sanctions Against Anti-competitive Practices Before Civil Courts|143
4|4.1.1.3 Sanctions Against Anti-competitive Practices Before Criminal Courts|145
4|4.1.1.4 Sanctions of Anti-competitive Practices on Grounds Other Than Competition Law|145
4|4.1.1.5 Hierarchy Among Sanctions|146
3|4.1.2 Effectiveness and Efficiency of Sanctions|146
4|4.1.2.1 Effectiveness of Sanctions|146
4|4.1.2.2 Efficiency of Sanctions Against Anti-competitive Practices: Reiteration|148
4|4.1.2.3 Negotiated Procedures Developed by the FCA|150
5|4.1.2.3.1 The Leniency Procedure|150
5|4.1.2.3.2 The Commitments Procedure|151
5|4.1.2.3.3 The Settlement Procedure|152
2|4.2 Special Cases of Liability for Anti-competitive Practices|153
3|4.2.1 The Liability of Parents´ Companies and Associations of Undertakings|153
4|4.2.1.1 The Liability of Parent Companies for the Actions of Their Subsidiaries|153
4|4.2.1.2 The Liability of Association and Grouping of Undertakings|155
3|4.2.2 The Liability of Managers and Employees for Anti-competitive Practices|156
4|4.2.2.1 Criminal Liability|156
4|4.2.2.2 Civil Liability|158
2|4.3 Conclusion|160
1|5: Germany|162
2|5.1 Introduction|162
2|5.2 Administrative Proceedings|164
2|5.3 Regulatory Fines|164
3|5.3.1 Legal Persons and Associations of Persons|165
4|5.3.1.1 Corporate Offenders|165
4|5.3.1.2 Parent Companies|168
4|5.3.1.3 Associations of Undertakings|170
3|5.3.2 Representatives|170
3|5.3.3 Procedure|171
2|5.4 Criminal Fines/Imprisonment|172
3|5.4.1 Bid-Rigging Offence|172
3|5.4.2 Procedure|173
2|5.5 Damages|174
3|5.5.1 External Liability|175
3|5.5.2 Internal Liability|177
2|5.6 Reform|179
3|5.6.1 Purely Administrative System|179
3|5.6.2 Individual Criminal Liability|180
3|5.6.3 Corporate Criminal Liability|180
2|5.7 Conclusion|181
1|6: Hong Kong|183
2|6.1 Overview and Summary|183
2|6.2 The Legal Position in Hong Kong|184
3|6.2.1 The Statutory Regime|184
3|6.2.2 Criminal Offences|184
3|6.2.3 Types of Sanctions|184
3|6.2.4 Goals of Imposing Competition Law Sanctions|185
3|6.2.5 Determination and Calculation of Sanctions|185
3|6.2.6 Enforcement|187
3|6.2.7 Parent Liability|187
3|6.2.8 Association of Undertakings|188
3|6.2.9 Individual Sanctions on CEOs or Employees|188
3|6.2.10 Leniency Agreements|192
3|6.2.11 Indirect Financial Liability of Directors and Employees|192
2|6.3 The Way Forward, Need for Change?|192
1|7: Hungary|194
2|7.1 Stock Taking|194
3|7.1.1 The Rules|194
3|7.1.2 Determination and Calculation of Sanctions|197
4|7.1.2.1 Rules on How to Determine the Amount of Fines|197
5|7.1.2.1.1 Competition Act|198
5|7.1.2.1.2 Public Procurement Act|198
5|7.1.2.1.3 Criminal Code|199
5|7.1.2.1.4 Legal Persons Criminality Act|200
5|7.1.2.1.5 Antitrust Fine Notice|201
4|7.1.2.2 Enforcement|202
4|7.1.2.3 Parental Liability|204
4|7.1.2.4 Associations of Undertakings|206
4|7.1.2.5 Individual Sanctions on CEOs and Employees|209
4|7.1.2.6 Employee/Director Indirect Financial Liability|210
2|7.2 Are Sanctions Efficient/Sufficient?|211
2|7.3 The Way Forward|217
1|8: Italy|218
2|8.1 Introduction|218
3|8.1.1 Rules of Law|219
3|8.1.2 Criminal and Business Law|219
2|8.2 Sanctions Regime|221
3|8.2.1 Brief Overview|221
4|8.2.1.1 The Italian Antitrust Law (287/90)|221
4|8.2.1.2 The Italian Guidelines on Sanctions 2014|221
4|8.2.1.3 Law No. 689/1981|225
3|8.2.2 Types of Sanctions: Administrative Sanctions, Leniency Programme and Civil Damages|226
4|8.2.2.1 Interim Measures|226
4|8.2.2.2 Sanctions for Cartels and Leniency Programme|227
4|8.2.2.3 Sanctions for Abuse of Dominance Position|228
4|8.2.2.4 Civil Damages|228
3|8.2.3 Punitive and Criminal Sanctions|228
2|8.3 Liability|229
3|8.3.1 Parent Liability|230
3|8.3.2 Associations of Undertakings|231
2|8.4 Conclusions|232
1|9: Spain|234
2|9.1 Introduction|234
2|9.2 Administrative Proceedings|235
2|9.3 Regulatory Fines|236
3|9.3.1 Parent Liability|239
3|9.3.2 Associations of Undertakings|241
3|9.3.3 Representatives|241
3|9.3.4 Determination and Calculation of Sanctions|243
3|9.3.5 Mitigating and Aggravating Factors|245
2|9.4 Criminal Fines and Imprisonment|246
2|9.5 Damages|247
1|10: Sweden|249
2|10.1 Stock Taking|249
3|10.1.1 The Rules|249
4|10.1.1.1 Nullity|250
4|10.1.1.2 Fines|250
4|10.1.1.3 Trading Prohibitions|252
4|10.1.1.4 Damages|252
4|10.1.1.5 Sanctions Imposed for Other Business-Related Breaches of Law|253
5|10.1.1.5.1 Tax Offences|253
5|10.1.1.5.2 False Accounting|254
5|10.1.1.5.3 Insider Trading|254
3|10.1.2 The Goals|254
3|10.1.3 Determination/Calculation of Sanctions|255
3|10.1.4 Enforcement|256
3|10.1.5 Parental Liability|256
3|10.1.6 Associations of Undertakings|257
3|10.1.7 Individual Sanctions on CEOs/Employees|258
2|10.2 Are Present Sanctions Efficient/Sufficient?|259
2|10.3 The Way Forward|260
1|11: Switzerland|263
2|11.1 Stock Taking|263
3|11.1.1 The Rules Concerning Competition Law Sanctions|263
3|11.1.2 The Goals of Competition Law Sanctions|266
3|11.1.3 Determination and Calculation of Competition Law Sanctions|266
3|11.1.4 Enforcement of Competition Law and of Competition|268
3|11.1.5 Attribution of Liability to a Parent Company|269
3|11.1.6 Attribution of Liability to an Association of Undertakings|270
3|11.1.7 Sanctions Against Individuals|271
3|11.1.8 Indirect Financial Liability of an Employee or a Director|273
2|11.2 Recent Sanctions Imposed by COMCO|273
2|11.3 The Way Forward, Need for Change?|274
1|12: United Kingdom|276
2|12.1 Overview and Summary|276
2|12.2 The Legal Position in the UK|277
3|12.2.1 Article 101/102 Equivalents|277
3|12.2.2 Criminal Offences|278
3|12.2.3 Relationship Between the Civil and Criminal Prohibitions|281
3|12.2.4 Competition Authorities and Their Priorities|282
3|12.2.5 Ne Bis in Idem|284
3|12.2.6 Sanctions Against Undertakings|285
3|12.2.7 Sanctions Against Individuals|288
3|12.2.8 The Relationship Between Sanctions Against Individuals and Undertakings|290
3|12.2.9 Additional Sanctions for Non-cooperation|291
3|12.2.10 Competition Damages and Their Relationship to the Penalty Regime|293
3|12.2.11 Parental Liability|294
2|12.3 Are Present Sanctions Efficient/Sufficient?|296
3|12.3.1 Largest Sanctions|296
3|12.3.2 Does Competition Enforcement Pass the CMA´s 10:1 Test?|298
3|12.3.3 Are the British Public Aware of Competition Law?|299
3|12.3.4 Do the British Public Approve of How Competition Law Is Enforced?|301
3|12.3.5 Is There Sufficient Enforcement?|301
3|12.3.6 Are the Right Cases Attracting the Most Serious Sanctions?|303
3|12.3.7 Does the Sequential Enforcement of the Criminal and Civil Rules Cause Harm?|304
3|12.3.8 Can an Act Fall Foul of the Cartel Offence but Not Breach Civil Competition Law?|305
2|12.4 The Way Forward, Need for Change?|306
3|12.4.1 The Cartel Offence Should Be Reserved for Only the Most Egregious Cases|306
3|12.4.2 Professional Sanctions (Including Director Disqualification) Should Be Sought in All Cases|307
3|12.4.3 Recidivism of Individuals|308
3|12.4.4 Monitoring Changes in Awareness as a Result of Enforcement Activity|309
3|12.4.5 Failure to Prevent Breaches of Competition Law|309
3|12.4.6 An EU-Wide Cartel Offence?|310
3|12.4.7 Brexit|311
1|13: Ukraine|313
2|13.1 Introduction|313
2|13.2 General Rules|314
2|13.3 Sanction in Competition Law|316
3|13.3.1 Goals|316
3|13.3.2 Types of Fines|316
3|13.3.3 Compensation for Damages|318
3|13.3.4 Other Types of Sanctions|319
3|13.3.5 Criminal Law Sanctions of Companies|319
2|13.4 Calculation of Sanctions|320
3|13.4.1 Methodology for Calculating|320
3|13.4.2 Role of the AMCU in Calculating Sanctions|321
2|13.5 Enforcement|322
3|13.5.1 Dominant Liability|322
3|13.5.2 Leniency Program|322
3|13.5.3 Parent Liability and Associations of Undertakings|323
3|13.5.4 Individual Sanctions Against Employees and Compliance Programs|325
2|13.6 Present Cases|326
2|13.7 Need for Changes|328
2|13.8 Conclusion|328
1|Part II: Protection of IP Rights in Distribution|330
1|14: International Report|331
2|14.1 Introduction|331
2|14.2 Background|332
2|14.3 General Overview|334
2|14.4 Protection of Trademarks and Brands|334
2|14.5 Protecting Brands Using Distribution Management|336
3|14.5.1 Selective Distribution Networks|336
3|14.5.2 E-commerce and Online Platforms|338
3|14.5.3 Geo-blocking|339
3|14.5.4 Exhaustion|340
4|14.5.4.1 General Conditions and Limitations|341
4|14.5.4.2 Trigger|342
4|14.5.4.3 Digital Goods|343
4|14.5.4.4 Burden of Proof|344
2|14.6 Protecting Brands by Controlling After-Sales Services|344
3|14.6.1 Guarantee|344
3|14.6.2 Right to Repair|346
3|14.6.3 Reverse Engineering|348
3|14.6.4 Software (and More) as a Service|349
2|14.7 Competition Law and the Abuse of Intellectual Property Rights|350
2|14.8 Protecting Brands Using Unfair Competition Law|351
2|14.9 Protecting Brands by Technical or Factual Behaviour|352
2|14.10 Consumer Protection|352
2|14.11 Balancing Consumer Interests|353
2|LIDC Resolution|355
1|15: Austria|356
2|15.1 Introduction|356
2|15.2 Scope of Legal Protection of Intellectual Property Rights|357
3|15.2.1 Principles on Trademarks in Austrian Law|357
3|15.2.2 Use of Trademarks and Legal Implications|358
3|15.2.3 Geo-blocking|360
3|15.2.4 Brand Protection on e-Commerce Platforms|360
3|15.2.5 De-compilation|360
2|15.3 Limitations of Legal Protection|361
3|15.3.1 Exhaustion of Trademarks|361
3|15.3.2 Geographical Scope|362
3|15.3.3 Burden of Proof|363
3|15.3.4 Digital Goods|364
2|15.4 Balance of Interest: IP Right Owners/Consumers|365
3|15.4.1 Protection of Consumer´s Rights|365
3|15.4.2 Consumer Rights and European Law|366
3|15.4.3 Unfair Competition and Its relation to Consumer Rights|367
2|15.5 Limitation for Trademark Owners|369
1|16: Belgium|370
2|16.1 Introduction|370
2|16.2 Exhaustion and Other Limitations of Legal Protection|371
3|16.2.1 Regional Exhaustion and Lack of International Exhaustion|371
3|16.2.2 Criteria for the Application of Exhaustion|376
3|16.2.3 Exceptions to Exhaustion and Other Peculiarities|380
4|16.2.3.1 Trademark Rights|380
5|16.2.3.1.1 Consent|380
5|16.2.3.1.2 Essential Function of a Trademark|383
5|16.2.3.1.3 Advertising Prerogatives|389
4|16.2.3.2 Patent Rights|391
5|16.2.3.2.1 Consent|391
5|16.2.3.2.2 Specific subject-matter of a Patent|392
5|16.2.3.2.3 Reverse Engineering and Decompilation|395
4|16.2.3.3 Copyright|396
5|16.2.3.3.1 Extension to Intangible Works, Including Services|396
5|16.2.3.3.2 Consequences of the Copyright Exhaustion Regime for Price Discrimination Strategies|399
5|16.2.3.3.3 Approaches to Geo-Blocking|401
3|16.2.4 Right to Repair and Product Liability|402
3|16.2.5 Unfair Commercial Practices and Third-Party Complicity to Breach of Contract|404
2|16.3 Concluding Remarks|405
1|17: Brazil|408
2|17.1 Brazilian Legal Landscape for IPRs|408
2|17.2 IPRs: Scope of Protection, Geo-Blocking, and Restriction of Online Sales|409
2|17.3 Limitations of Legal Protections|413
2|17.4 Conclusion|420
1|18: Czech Republic|422
2|18.1 Introduction|422
2|18.2 Scope of Legal Protection|423
3|18.2.1 The Trademark Act: Exclusive Rights of the Trademark Owner of a Brand|424
3|18.2.2 The Czech Copyright Act: Exclusive Rights of the Author of a Brand|425
2|18.3 Limitations of Legal Protection|426
3|18.3.1 The Czech Trademark Act: Limitation of Exclusive Rights and Exhaustion|427
3|18.3.2 Copyright Act: Limitation of Exclusive Rights and Exhaustion|430
2|18.4 Balance of Interests|431
2|18.5 Conclusion|435
1|19: Hong Kong|437
2|19.1 Scope of Legal Protection of IP Rights in Hong Kong|437
3|19.1.1 Trade Marks|437
3|19.1.2 Copyright|439
3|19.1.3 Registered Designs|440
3|19.1.4 Patents|440
3|19.1.5 Confidential Information|441
3|19.1.6 Private Information|441
3|19.1.7 Layout Designs|442
2|19.2 Exhaustion of Rights|442
3|19.2.1 Trade Marks|442
3|19.2.2 Copyright|443
3|19.2.3 Layout Design|444
2|19.3 Reverse Engineering|444
1|20: Hungary|446
2|20.1 Introduction|446
2|20.2 The Scope of Legal Protection of Intellectual Property Rights in Hungary|447
3|20.2.1 The Hungarian Trademark Act (Act 11 of 1997)|447
3|20.2.2 The Unfair Market Practices Act/Competition Law (Act 57 of 1996)|448
3|20.2.3 The Hungarian Patent Act (Act 33 of 1995)|448
3|20.2.4 The Act on the Protection of Utility Models (Act 38 of 1991)|449
3|20.2.5 The Design Act (Act 48 of 2001)|449
3|20.2.6 The Copyright Act (Act 76 of 1999)|450
2|20.3 Protection of Intellectual Property Rights in Matters of Distribution|450
3|20.3.1 After-Sales Matters|450
3|20.3.2 Geo-Blocking|451
3|20.3.3 E-commerce Platforms|452
3|20.3.4 Reverse Engineering and De-compilation|453
2|20.4 Limitations of Legal Protection Regarding Intellectual Property Rights|454
3|20.4.1 Exhaustion|454
4|20.4.1.1 Scope of Exhaustion in the Trademark and in the Patent Act|455
4|20.4.1.2 The Geographical Scope of Exhaustion|456
4|20.4.1.3 Exhaustion in the Case of Digital Goods|457
4|20.4.1.4 The Matter of Harmonization Regarding Exhaustion Rules in the EU: Balance Between the Rights of Consumers and Right H...|458
3|20.4.2 Antitrust Law and IP Rights|459
3|20.4.3 Limitations Imposed on Downstream Markets: Software-as-a-Service|459
2|20.5 Consumer Interests in Competition Law|460
3|20.5.1 A Reversal of the Burden of Proof|460
3|20.5.2 Aftermarket Repair Considerations|461
3|20.5.3 Product Liability|461
2|20.6 Balancing Consumer and Market Interests in Legislation|462
3|20.6.1 Direct Regulations|462
3|20.6.2 Indirect Regulations|463
3|20.6.3 Relevant Case Law|463
1|21: Italy|465
2|21.1 Scope of Legal Protection|465
3|21.1.1 Legally Protected Interests of IP Right Holders in the Italian Jurisdiction|465
3|21.1.2 Standards of Protection of Brands Available to Holders of IP Rights Depending on Distribution|466
3|21.1.3 Specific After-Sales Services Reserved to the Holder of IP Rights by Law|467
3|21.1.4 Protection and Terms of Usage of a Trademark by the Licensees|468
3|21.1.5 Geo-blocking and Its Limitations|469
3|21.1.6 Brand Protection on e-Commerce Platforms|470
3|21.1.7 Protection Against Reverse Engineering|471
2|21.2 Limitations on Legal Protection|472
3|21.2.1 The Principle of Exhaustion|472
3|21.2.2 The Geographical Scope of Exhaustion|473
3|21.2.3 The Application of the Principle of Exhaustion to Digital Goods|474
3|21.2.4 International Agreements and the Exhaustion of Intellectual Property Rights|475
3|21.2.5 Limitations on Brand Protection and Principle of Exhaustion|475
3|21.2.6 The Limitations on Providing Product, Including Software, ``as a Service´´|475
3|21.2.7 Burden of Proof for the Violation of Consumer Interests|476
3|21.2.8 The Right to Repair, the Guarantees, and Product Liability|477
2|21.3 Balance of Interests|478
3|21.3.1 Consumers´ Rights in the Italian Legal System|478
3|21.3.2 Balance of Interests Between IP Right Holders and Consumers|479
1|22: Romania|480
2|22.1 Introduction|480
2|22.2 The Scope of Legal Protection of Intellectual Property Rights in Romania|481
3|22.2.1 The Specific Enactments|481
3|22.2.2 Protection of Interests Beyond the Limits of Specific Rights|483
2|22.3 Protection of Intellectual Property Rights in Matters of Distribution|484
3|22.3.1 After-Sales Matters|485
3|22.3.2 Geo-blocking|486
3|22.3.3 E-commerce Platforms|488
3|22.3.4 Reverse Engineering and Decompilation|492
2|22.4 Limitations of Legal Protection Regarding Intellectual Property Rights|494
3|22.4.1 Exhaustion of Rights|494
4|22.4.1.1 Substantial Scope of Exhaustion|494
4|22.4.1.2 Mechanism of Exhaustion|495
4|22.4.1.3 Limits of Exhaustion|496
4|22.4.1.4 Exhaustion and Digital Goods|496
4|22.4.1.5 Exhaustion and Protection of Brands|497
2|22.5 Antitrust Law and IP Rights|498
2|22.6 Protection of Consumer Interests|500
3|22.6.1 Protected Interests and Burden of Proof|500
3|22.6.2 Right to Repair and Post-sale Services|501
3|22.6.3 Relevance of Consumers´ Interests for the Protection of Intellectual Property Rights|503
4|22.6.3.1 Constitutional Relevance of Consumers´ Interests|503
4|22.6.3.2 Consumers´ Interests in the Courts|503
4|22.6.3.3 Consumers´ Interests in Competition Law|505
4|22.6.3.4 Protection of Intellectual Property Rights and Consumer Welfare/Consumer Surplus|506
1|23: Spain|507
2|23.1 Intellectual Property Rights Protection in Spain|507
3|23.1.1 Overview of the General Aspects|507
3|23.1.2 Protected Interests of the Holders of Trademarks in Spain: Domestic and International Framework|509
4|23.1.2.1 List of Interests Protected for Trademarks Holders Under the STA|509
4|23.1.2.2 Requirements for Registering the Trademark Under the STA|510
2|23.2 Spanish Legal Framework of IP Right Protection Limitations|511
3|23.2.1 Exhaustion Doctrine in Spanish IP Protection System: General Aspects|511
3|23.2.2 Exhaustion Doctrine Under the STA: Geographical, Temporal, and Substantive Scope|511
4|23.2.2.1 Other Limitations Under the STA|513
3|23.2.3 Protection of the Trademarks in Distribution Networks and Parallel Trade Under the STA and SUCA|513
4|23.2.3.1 Trademark Rights in On- and Offline Distribution and Resales Under the STA: Licenses of Use and Licenses of Exploitat...|514
4|23.2.3.2 Digital Goods and Digital Distribution: ``First Sales Theory´´ and ``First Implied License Theory´´ Under the Spanish...|516
3|23.2.4 Reverse Engineering, Geoblocking, E-commerce Aspects, and Protection of IP Rights in Spain|517
4|23.2.4.1 Reverse Engineering and IP Right Holders: Spanish Civil and Penal Protection|517
4|23.2.4.2 Geoblocking and IP Rights Under the Spanish Legal System|518
4|23.2.4.3 E-commerce Platforms and Trademark Rights Holders: Limitations Against Providers|519
2|23.3 Spanish Legal Framework of Competition Law, IP Rights, and Consumer Protection: Balance of Interests|519
3|23.3.1 Spanish Constitution and Consumer Protection|520
3|23.3.2 Protection and Remedies for Consumers Under the Spanish Legal Framework: Public and Private Law Aspects|521
4|23.3.2.1 Specific Aspects of Consumer Protection and IP Right Protection|522
5|23.3.2.1.1 After-Sales Service Liability, the Right to Repair, and Other Related Aspects|522
5|23.3.2.1.2 Product Liability in Digital Goods: ``Breaking of Seals´´ and Software Replacement and Updates|523
3|23.3.3 More Economic Approach and More Based Effects Approach: Balance of the Interests of Consumers, Competition, and IP Righ...|524
2|23.4 Final Remarks|525
1|24: Sweden|526
2|24.1 Background|526
3|24.1.1 Influence of European Law|526
2|24.2 Overview of the Legal Framework|527
3|24.2.1 Consumer Protection, Unfair Business Practices and Competition Law|528
3|24.2.2 The Swedish Trademarks Act|529
3|24.2.3 Protection of Brands in Swedish Marketing Law|531
4|24.2.3.1 Comparative Advertising|531
4|24.2.3.2 Misleading Imitations|532
2|24.3 The Exhaustion Doctrine and Trademarks´ in Relation to Competition Law|534
3|24.3.1 Parallel Imports and the Exhaustion Doctrine|534
3|24.3.2 Intellectual Property Law in Relation to Competition Law|535
3|24.3.3 Judgment of the Patent and Market Court of Appeal of 29 June 2018, Reference PMT 1988-17, Konkurrensverket v Swedish Ma...|536
3|24.3.4 To What Extent Does Trademark Law Allow the Trademark Proprietor to Determine the Terms and Usage of the Products?|537
3|24.3.5 Warranty Clauses|538
3|24.3.6 The Possibility to Protect Brands on E-Commerce Platforms|540
3|24.3.7 Striking a Fair Balance Between IPRs and Competing Interests|541
3|24.3.8 Consumer Protection: Product Liability, Repairs and Warranties|543
2|24.4 On the Topic of Digital Copyright|545
2|24.5 Some Prospective Outlooks|547
1|25: Switzerland|548
2|25.1 Introduction|548
2|25.2 Exhaustion of Intellectual Property Rights in Switzerland|549
3|25.2.1 A Critical Time in the 1990s|549
3|25.2.2 Exhaustion of Trademarks|550
3|25.2.3 Exhaustion of Copyrights|553
4|25.2.3.1 International Exhaustion|553
4|25.2.3.2 Contractual and Other Limitations to Exhaustion|554
3|25.2.4 Exhaustion of Patents|555
3|25.2.5 Exhaustion of Design Rights|558
3|25.2.6 Exhaustion of Variety Protection|558
2|25.3 Parallel Imports and Swiss Antitrust|559
3|25.3.1 Swiss Antitrust and Intellectual Property|559
3|25.3.2 The Swiss Rules on Vertical Restraints|560
2|25.4 Parallel Imports and Unfair Competition|562
3|25.4.1 Protection of Distribution Networks?|562
3|25.4.2 Protection of Users|565
2|25.5 Economics of Exhaustion and Parallel Trade|566
2|25.6 Introducing a WTO Regulation of Exhaustion?|570
2|25.7 Conclusions|573