File #2303: "2018_Book_ComparativePerspectivesOnTheEn.pdf"
Text
1|Contents|6
1|Part I: Introduction and General Report|9
2|Enforcement and Effectiveness of Antidiscrimination Law: Global Commonalities and Practices|10
3|1 Introduction|10
3|2 Enforcement, Effectiveness and the Ambivalent Reception of Antidiscrimination Law (Theme 1)|12
3|3 Enforcement and the Disparate Treatment of Grounds of Discrimination (Theme 2)|13
3|4 Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law, Evidence, and Procedural Rules (Theme 3)|13
3|5 Enforcement and Variable Resistance to Effective Remedies in Antidiscrimination Law (Theme 4)|14
3|6 A Way Forward: Antidiscrimination Law as Transformative Law? (Theme 5)|15
3|7 Conclusion: From Enforcement to Effectiveness?|18
3|Reference|19
1|Part II: National Reports|21
2|Argentina|22
3|1 Introduction|22
3|2 The Antidiscrimination Act|25
3|3 The Scope of the Antidiscrimination Laws in Argentina|25
3|4 Problems|27
3|5 Enforcement: The INADI and Other Agencies-Civil Society|28
3|6 Enforcement: Case Law|30
4|6.1 Sexual Orientation|31
4|6.2 People with Disabilities|31
4|6.3 Gender Discrimination in Employment|32
4|6.4 Nationality|32
3|7 Towards a More Equal Society|32
3|8 Conclusion|33
3|References|34
2|Australia|35
3|1 Introduction|35
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|36
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|37
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|37
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|38
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|38
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|38
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|39
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|40
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|41
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|42
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|42
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|43
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|44
3|15 Conclusion|44
3|Reference|45
2|Belgium|46
3|1 Introduction|46
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Being Enforced?|48
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|50
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|51
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|53
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|53
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|54
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|56
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|59
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|60
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|61
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|62
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|62
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|63
3|15 Conclusion|64
3|References|64
2|Brésil (Brazil)|66
3|1 Introduction|66
3|2 Le droit antidiscriminatoire est-il mis en œuvre?|67
3|3 Comment le droit antidiscriminatoire est-il appliqué?|69
3|4 Qui exécute le droit antidiscriminatoire?|70
3|5 Qui bénéficie de la mise en œuvre du droit antidiscriminatoire?|71
3|6 Qui est concerné par la mise en œuvre du droit antidiscriminatoire?|72
3|7 Quels recours juridiques sont-ils disponibles afin de mettre en œuvre le droit antidiscriminatoire?|73
3|8 Qui soutient la mise en œuvre du droit antidiscriminatoire au Brésil?|75
3|9 Qui s'oppose à la mise en œuvre du droit antidiscriminatoire?|76
3|10 Quelle est l'ampleur de la couverture du droit antidiscriminatoire?|77
3|11 La mise en œuvre du droit antidiscriminatoire varie selon le degré de discrimination?|79
3|12 Quelle est la relation entre la mise en œuvre du droit antidiscriminatoire et la recherche de l'égalité à la fois individue...|79
3|13 La mise en œuvre du droit antidiscriminatoire est-elle comprise comme différente de l'exécution d'autres droits?|81
3|14 Qu´est-ce que l´exécution du droit antidiscriminatoire révèle à propos de la nature de son système légal ou à propos de l'e...|82
3|15 Conclusion|83
3|References|84
2|Canada|85
3|1 Introduction|85
3|2 The Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law|86
4|2.1 Antidiscrimination Statutes and Complaints-based Enforcement|86
4|2.2 Proactive Legislative Initiatives|87
5|2.2.1 Employment Equity|88
5|2.2.2 Pay Equity|89
5|2.2.3 Proactive Disability Rights|90
5|2.2.4 Sexual Violence, Harassment and Anti-Racism Initiatives|90
4|2.3 Constitutional Equality Rights and Protections Against Discrimination|91
4|2.4 International Protection|92
3|3 Scope of Protection: Grounds and Contexts|93
4|3.1 Scope of Protection: Protected Grounds of Discrimination|93
5|3.1.1 Antidiscrimination Statutes: Grounds of Discrimination|93
5|3.1.2 Constitutional Protections: Enumerated and Analogous Grounds|94
4|3.2 Scope of Protection: In What Context and Sectors Are Individuals and Groups Protected?|95
5|3.2.1 Protected Contexts and Sectors: Antidiscrimination Statutes (see Appendix)|95
5|3.2.2 The Scope of Constitutional Protections|96
3|4 Remedies|97
4|4.1 Remedies Under Antidiscrimination Statutes|97
5|4.1.1 Remedies for Past Discrimination|97
5|4.1.2 Systemic Remedies: Proactive and Preventive|98
4|4.2 Constitutional Remedies|99
3|5 Public Responsibility, Civil Society and the Role of Private Actors|100
3|6 Effective Enforcement and Different Grounds of Protection|101
3|7 Individual Versus Systemic Approaches|102
3|8 The Challenges and Specificity of Enforcing Antidiscrimination Law|104
3|9 Conclusion: Canadian Law and Society Through the Lens of Antidiscrimination Law|106
3|Appendix|107
3|References|109
2|Canada|112
3|1 Introduction|112
3|2 Le droit de la non-discrimination est-il mis en œuvre?|113
3|3 Comment le droit à la non-discrimination est-il mis en œuvre ?|114
3|4 Qui met en œuvre le droit de la non-discrimination?|115
3|5 À qui profite la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination?|116
3|6 Qui est lésé par la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination ?|117
3|7 Quelles réparations sont prévues pour mettre en œuvre le droit de la non-discrimination?|119
3|8 Qui soutient la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination ?|120
3|9 Qui s´oppose au droit de la non-discrimination ?|121
3|10 Quelle est la portée du droit de la non-discrimination?|122
3|11 La mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination varie-t-elle en fonction du critère discriminatoire ?|123
3|12 Quel est le rapport entre la mise en œuvre de la non-discrimination et la recherche d´égalité au niveau individuel et systé...|124
3|13 La mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination est-elle perçue comme distincte de la mise en œuvre d´autres lois?|125
3|14 Que révèle la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination sur la nature de votre système juridique et sur l´application...|126
3|15 Conclusion|128
3|References|129
2|Croatia|130
3|1 Introduction|130
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|131
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|133
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|134
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|136
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|137
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|139
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|140
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|142
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|143
3|11 Does Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|144
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|146
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|147
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|149
3|15 Conclusion|150
3|References|152
2|Czech Republic|153
3|1 Introduction|153
3|2 Constitutional and International Basis of the Czech Antidiscrimination Law|154
4|2.1 Constitutional Basis of the Prohibition of Discrimination|154
4|2.2 International Law Regarding Discrimination|155
3|3 National Legislation on the Matters of Discrimination|157
4|3.1 Antidiscrimination Act|157
4|3.2 Antidiscrimination Provisions in Private Law|158
4|3.3 Antidiscrimination Provisions in Civil Law|158
4|3.4 Antidiscrimination Provisions in Labour Law|159
4|3.5 Antidiscrimination Provisions in Criminal Law|161
4|3.6 Antidiscrimination Provisions in Administrative Law|162
3|4 Sanctions for Discriminatory Conduct|163
4|4.1 Civil Sanctions|163
4|4.2 Criminal Sanctions|164
4|4.3 Administrative Sanctions|164
3|5 Judicial Review of Discrimination Cases|165
4|5.1 Civil Procedure|165
5|5.1.1 Burden of Proof|166
5|5.1.2 Actio Popularis|167
4|5.2 Criminal Procedure|167
4|5.3 Administrative Procedure|167
3|6 Other State Authorities Entitled to Enforcement of the Antidiscrimination Law|168
4|6.1 The Public Defender of Rights|168
4|6.2 Other State Authorities|169
3|7 The Role of the NGOs|169
3|8 Deficiencies of the Enforcement Mechanisms of the Antidiscrimination Law|170
3|9 Overall Assessment of the Situation Regarding Discrimination in the Czech Republic|171
3|References|172
2|Denmark|174
3|1 Introduction|174
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|176
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|177
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|178
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|179
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|180
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|180
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|182
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|182
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|182
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|183
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|184
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|185
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|185
3|15 Conclusion|186
3|References|187
2|France: le jeu des acteurs|188
3|1 Introduction|188
3|2 Le droit de la non-discrimination est-il mis en œuvre?|189
3|3 COMMENT est-il mis en œuvre?|190
3|4 QUI met en œuvre le droit de la non-discrimination?|192
3|5 A QUI PROFITE la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination?|194
3|6 QUI EST LESE par la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination?|198
3|7 QUELLES REPARATIONS sont prévues pour mettre en œuvre le droit de la non-discrimination ?|198
3|8 QUI SOUTIENT la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination?|199
3|9 QUI S´OPPOSE au droit de la non-discrimination?|201
3|10 QUELLE EST LA PORTEE du droit de la non-discrimination?|202
3|11 LA MISE EN OEUVRE DU DROIT DE LA NON DISCRIMINATION VARIE-T-ELLE en fonction du critère discriminatoire?|204
3|12 QUEL EST LE RAPPORT entre la mise en œuvre de la non-discrimination et la recherche d´égalité au niveau individuel et systé...|206
4|12.1 L´égalité formelle: un fondement opératoire du droit français|207
4|12.2 L´impact du principe de discrimination indirecte|209
3|13 LA MISE EN OEUVRE DU DROIT DE LA NON DISCRIMINATION EST-ELLE PERCUE COMME DISTINCTE de la mise en œuvre d´autres lois?|210
3|14 QUE REVELE LA MISE EN OEUVRE DU DROIT DE LA NON DISCRIMINATION sur la nature de votre système juridique et sur la mise en œ...|211
3|15 Conclusion|212
3|Reference|213
2|Discrimination Et Matiere Penale En France|214
3|1 Le droit de la non-discrimination, un droit amplement consacré dans la matière pénale|214
4|1.1 Une mise en œuvre dans un sens répressif|215
4|1.2 Une mise en œuvre effective du droit de la non-discrimination dans une optique préventive.|218
3|2 Une mise en œuvre effective du droit de la non-discrimination dans la matière pénale?|219
3|3 Les acteurs du droit de la non-discrimination en matière pénale|222
3|4 A qui profite la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination en matière pénale?|224
3|5 Qui est lésé par la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination en matière pénale?|224
3|6 Quelles réparations et sanctions sont prévues pour mettre en œuvre le droit de la non-discrimination en matière pénale?|225
3|7 Qui soutient la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination en matière pénale?|226
3|8 Quelle est la portée effective du droit de la non-discrimination dans la matière pénale?|227
3|9 La mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination en matière pénale varie-t-elle en fonction du critère discriminatoire?|228
3|10 Quel est le rapport entre la mise en œuvre de la non-discrimination en matière pénale et la recherche d´égalité au niveau i...|231
3|11 La mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination en matière pénale est-elle perçue comme distincte de la mise en œuvre d´...|232
3|12 Que révèle la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination en matière pénale sur la nature de votre système juridique et...|233
3|References|235
2|France and the Netherlands: Toward Convergence?|238
3|1 Introduction|238
3|2 Non-discrimination and the Principle of Equality|239
4|2.1 Equality in the French Republic: Interpreting the Legal and Political Principle|240
4|2.2 The Netherlands: An Exemplary Model of Equality?|242
3|3 The Actors Involved in Non-discrimination|244
4|3.1 France: A Multiplicity of Actors and a Need for Coordination|244
4|3.2 The Netherlands: Decentralization and Coordination|246
3|4 The Law and Non-discrimination Policies: A Paradoxical Relationship|248
4|4.1 France: The Law on the Sidelines|248
4|4.2 The Netherlands: A Mixed Relationship with the Law|251
3|5 Conclusion|253
3|References|253
2|Germany|256
3|1 Introduction and Overview of Antidiscrimination Legislation|256
4|1.1 Constitutional Principle of Equal Treatment|256
4|1.2 General Equal Treatment Act|257
5|1.2.1 Application in Labour Law|258
5|1.2.2 Application in Private Law|259
4|1.3 Further Sources of Antidiscrimination Law in the German Legal System|259
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|259
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|260
4|3.1 Enforcement in the Private Sector|260
4|3.2 Enforcement in Public Employment Law and Other Fields of Public Law|261
4|3.3 Alternative Dispute Resolution|262
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|262
4|4.1 Affected Person|262
4|4.2 Antidiscrimination Organisations|262
4|4.3 Federal Antidiscrimination Agency|264
4|4.4 Trade Offices (Gewerbeämter)|264
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|265
4|5.1 Employees|265
4|5.2 Particularly: Female Employees in the Public Sector|265
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|266
4|6.1 Persons Bound by Antidiscrimination Laws|266
4|6.2 Discrimination by Positive Measures?|267
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|268
4|7.1 Remedies in Private Labour Law|268
4|7.2 Remedies in Public Labour Law|269
4|7.3 Remedies in Private Law (Other Than Employment Law)|270
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|271
4|8.1 Federal Antidiscrimination Agency|271
4|8.2 Commissioners for Matters Relating to Disabled Persons|271
4|8.3 Equal Opportunity Commissioners (Gleichstellungsbeauftragte)|272
4|8.4 Private Antidiscrimination Organisations|272
4|8.5 Worker´s Councils and Trade Unions|273
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|273
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|274
4|10.1 Public Law|274
4|10.2 Private Employment Law|274
4|10.3 Other Fields of Civil Law|275
3|11 Does Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|276
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|277
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|278
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|279
3|References|279
2|Greece|281
3|1 Introduction|281
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|282
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|282
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|283
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|285
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|286
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|286
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|288
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|288
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|288
3|11 Does Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|289
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|289
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded As Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|289
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|290
3|15 Conclusion|290
2|India|292
3|1 Introduction|292
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|293
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|294
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|295
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|296
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|297
3|7 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|298
3|8 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|299
3|9 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|300
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|301
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|302
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|302
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|303
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|304
3|15 Conclusion|305
3|References|306
2|Israel|308
3|1 Introduction|308
4|1.1 Recognized Disadvantaged and Discriminated-Against Groups in Israel|308
4|1.2 Public and Private Law|309
3|2 Are Antidiscrimination Laws Enforced?|310
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|310
3|4 Who Enforces the Antidiscrimination Laws?|311
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Laws?|313
3|6 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Laws?|313
3|7 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Laws?|314
3|8 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Laws?|315
3|9 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Laws?|315
4|9.1 Existing Legislation in Israel|316
4|9.2 Legislation That Does Not Exist in Israel|320
4|9.3 Bills Pending|320
3|10 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Laws Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|320
3|11 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|322
4|11.1 The Labor Market: Introduction|322
4|11.2 Women|324
4|11.3 Mizrachi Jews|324
4|11.4 Arabs|325
4|11.5 The Elderly|326
4|11.6 Sexual Orientation|327
3|12 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|328
3|13 Conclusion|330
3|References|330
2|Italy|332
3|1 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|332
4|1.1 Article 43 of Legislative Decree no. 286 of 25 July 98 (Testo Unico Immigrazione, Consolidated Immigration Act)|332
4|1.2 Legislative Decree no. 215 of 9 July 2003|333
4|1.3 Legislative Decree no. 216 of 9 July 2003|333
4|1.4 Legislative Decree no. 198 of 11 April 2006 (Gender Equal Opportunities Code)|333
4|1.5 Law no. 67 of 1 March 2006|334
3|2 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|334
4|2.1 Various Grounds of Discrimination|334
4|2.2 Fast-Track Proceedings|335
4|2.3 Enforcing Equality Bodies|336
5|2.3.1 Ufficio Nazionale contro le discriminazioni razziali (UNAR), (National Bureau Against Race Discrimination)|337
5|2.3.2 Consigliera di Parità (Gender Equality Advisor)|337
3|3 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|338
3|4 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|339
3|5 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|341
3|6 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|341
3|7 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|342
3|8 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|342
3|9 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|343
3|10 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|343
3|11 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|345
3|12 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|346
3|13 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|347
3|14 Conclusion|347
3|References|348
2|Japan|350
3|1 Introduction|350
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|351
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|353
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|354
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|356
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|357
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|358
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|359
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|360
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|360
3|11 Does Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|361
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|362
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|363
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|363
3|15 Conclusion|364
3|Reference|364
2|Republic of Korea|366
3|1 Introduction|366
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|368
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|368
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|369
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|370
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|370
3|7 What Remedies May Be Provided Through Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|371
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|372
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|372
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of South Korea´s Antidiscrimination Laws?|373
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Grounds of Discrimination?|374
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|375
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|375
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|376
3|15 Conclusion|377
2|Liban (Lebanon)|379
3|1 Introduction|379
3|2 Première Partie : La description du droit libanais de la non-discrimination|380
3|3 Deuxième Partie : La portée du droit libanais de la non-discrimination|382
3|4 Conclusion|386
3|Bibliographie|387
2|Portugal|388
3|1 Introduction|388
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|389
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|389
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|390
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|392
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|394
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|394
4|7.1 Judicial Procedures|394
4|7.2 Alternative Disputes Resolution for Private Sector in Labour Law|395
4|7.3 Administrative Procedures and Administrative Courts for Public Sector|396
4|7.4 Criminal Law Procedures|396
4|7.5 Civil Law Procedures|396
4|7.6 Administrative Procedures for Private Sector|396
4|7.7 Ombudsman|397
4|7.8 Actions by Public Bodies|397
5|7.8.1 The High Commissioner for Migrations|397
5|7.8.2 The Gender Equality Agency in the Field of Employment (CITE)|397
5|7.8.3 The Commission for Citizenship and Gender Equality (CIG)|398
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|398
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|398
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|399
4|10.1 European Union Law|399
4|10.2 International Law|400
4|10.3 Domestic Law|401
5|10.3.1 Constitutional Law|401
5|10.3.2 Domestic Legislation|402
6|General Legislation|403
6|Specific Legislation|403
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|405
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|406
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded As Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|406
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|406
3|15 Conclusion|407
3|References|408
2|Romania|410
3|1 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|410
3|2 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|416
3|3 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|419
3|4 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|419
3|5 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|421
3|6 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|421
3|7 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|421
3|8 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|421
3|9 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|422
3|10 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|422
3|11 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|422
3|12 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|422
3|13 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|423
3|14 Conclusions|423
3|References|424
2|South Africa|426
3|1 South African Antidiscrimination Law in Context|426
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|430
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|431
4|3.1 Antidiscrimination Law in the Context of Education|431
4|3.2 A-D Law in the Workplace and in the Context of Economic Empowerment|433
4|3.3 A-D Law in the Broader Social Context Including Access to Housing and Other Public Accommodation|433
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|435
4|4.1 Public Institutions and Processes Involved in Enforcing Antidiscrimination Law|435
5|4.1.1 Chapter 9 Institutions|435
5|4.1.2 Education|436
5|4.1.3 Employment and Economic Opportunities|436
4|4.2 Judicial Processes (Courts and Tribunals) Enforcing Antidiscrimination Law|437
4|4.3 The Triggering of Judicial Enforcement|438
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|439
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|440
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|441
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|443
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|444
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|444
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|446
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|447
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded As Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|448
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|449
3|15 Conclusion|450
3|References|450
2|Spain|452
3|1 Introduction|452
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|453
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|454
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|455
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|456
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|457
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|458
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|459
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|460
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|461
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|462
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|463
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded As Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|464
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|465
3|15 Conclusions|466
4|15.1 The Enforcement of Antidiscriminatory Law Is at the Center of Public Policies and Private Decisions|466
4|15.2 The Enforcement of Antidiscriminatory Law Tries to Get Social Participation in Equal Conditions|467
4|15.3 The Enforcement of Antidiscriminatory Law Relies on Different Levels of Protection Depending on the Ground|467
3|References|467
2|Turkey|470
3|1 Introduction|470
3|2 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|471
3|3 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|474
3|4 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|477
3|5 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|477
3|6 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|478
3|7 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|480
3|8 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|480
3|9 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|480
3|10 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|483
3|11 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|483
3|12 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|484
3|13 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|484
3|14 Conclusion|485
3|References|485
3|Relevant National Regulations|485
2|United Kingdom|487
3|1 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|487
4|1.1 Introduction|487
4|1.2 The Legislative Framework|487
4|1.3 Awareness of the Law|489
4|1.4 Patterns of Individual Enforcement|489
4|1.5 Recent Developments|491
4|1.6 An Alternative Model? Positive Duties|492
4|1.7 Conclusion|493
3|2 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|493
3|3 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|495
3|4 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|496
3|5 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|497
3|6 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|498
3|7 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|499
3|8 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|500
3|9 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|501
3|10 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|502
3|11 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|504
3|12 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|504
3|13 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|505
3|References|505
2|The United States|507
3|1 Introduction|507
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|508
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|508
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|509
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|510
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|510
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|511
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|512
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|512
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|513
3|11 Does Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|515
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|516
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|517
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|518
3|15 Conclusion|520
3|References|521
1|Part III: Regional Reports|522
2|European Convention of Human Rights/Council of Europe|523
3|1 Introduction|523
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|524
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|524
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|525
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|526
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|526
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|527
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|528
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|529
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|530
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Grounds of Discrimination?|531
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|532
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|532
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|533
3|15 Conclusion|533
3|References|533
2|The Inter-American Court of Human Rights|535
3|1 Introduction|535
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|536
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|537
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|538
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|539
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|541
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|542
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|544
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|545
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|546
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Grounds of Discrimination?|547
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|549
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|550
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|551
3|15 Conclusion|552
3|References|553
1|Appendix A: Questionnaire|555
1|Appendix B: Meet the Editors|556
1|Part I: Introduction and General Report|9
2|Enforcement and Effectiveness of Antidiscrimination Law: Global Commonalities and Practices|10
3|1 Introduction|10
3|2 Enforcement, Effectiveness and the Ambivalent Reception of Antidiscrimination Law (Theme 1)|12
3|3 Enforcement and the Disparate Treatment of Grounds of Discrimination (Theme 2)|13
3|4 Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law, Evidence, and Procedural Rules (Theme 3)|13
3|5 Enforcement and Variable Resistance to Effective Remedies in Antidiscrimination Law (Theme 4)|14
3|6 A Way Forward: Antidiscrimination Law as Transformative Law? (Theme 5)|15
3|7 Conclusion: From Enforcement to Effectiveness?|18
3|Reference|19
1|Part II: National Reports|21
2|Argentina|22
3|1 Introduction|22
3|2 The Antidiscrimination Act|25
3|3 The Scope of the Antidiscrimination Laws in Argentina|25
3|4 Problems|27
3|5 Enforcement: The INADI and Other Agencies-Civil Society|28
3|6 Enforcement: Case Law|30
4|6.1 Sexual Orientation|31
4|6.2 People with Disabilities|31
4|6.3 Gender Discrimination in Employment|32
4|6.4 Nationality|32
3|7 Towards a More Equal Society|32
3|8 Conclusion|33
3|References|34
2|Australia|35
3|1 Introduction|35
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|36
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|37
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|37
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|38
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|38
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|38
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|39
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|40
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|41
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|42
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|42
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|43
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|44
3|15 Conclusion|44
3|Reference|45
2|Belgium|46
3|1 Introduction|46
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Being Enforced?|48
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|50
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|51
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|53
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|53
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|54
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|56
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|59
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|60
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|61
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|62
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|62
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|63
3|15 Conclusion|64
3|References|64
2|Brésil (Brazil)|66
3|1 Introduction|66
3|2 Le droit antidiscriminatoire est-il mis en œuvre?|67
3|3 Comment le droit antidiscriminatoire est-il appliqué?|69
3|4 Qui exécute le droit antidiscriminatoire?|70
3|5 Qui bénéficie de la mise en œuvre du droit antidiscriminatoire?|71
3|6 Qui est concerné par la mise en œuvre du droit antidiscriminatoire?|72
3|7 Quels recours juridiques sont-ils disponibles afin de mettre en œuvre le droit antidiscriminatoire?|73
3|8 Qui soutient la mise en œuvre du droit antidiscriminatoire au Brésil?|75
3|9 Qui s'oppose à la mise en œuvre du droit antidiscriminatoire?|76
3|10 Quelle est l'ampleur de la couverture du droit antidiscriminatoire?|77
3|11 La mise en œuvre du droit antidiscriminatoire varie selon le degré de discrimination?|79
3|12 Quelle est la relation entre la mise en œuvre du droit antidiscriminatoire et la recherche de l'égalité à la fois individue...|79
3|13 La mise en œuvre du droit antidiscriminatoire est-elle comprise comme différente de l'exécution d'autres droits?|81
3|14 Qu´est-ce que l´exécution du droit antidiscriminatoire révèle à propos de la nature de son système légal ou à propos de l'e...|82
3|15 Conclusion|83
3|References|84
2|Canada|85
3|1 Introduction|85
3|2 The Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law|86
4|2.1 Antidiscrimination Statutes and Complaints-based Enforcement|86
4|2.2 Proactive Legislative Initiatives|87
5|2.2.1 Employment Equity|88
5|2.2.2 Pay Equity|89
5|2.2.3 Proactive Disability Rights|90
5|2.2.4 Sexual Violence, Harassment and Anti-Racism Initiatives|90
4|2.3 Constitutional Equality Rights and Protections Against Discrimination|91
4|2.4 International Protection|92
3|3 Scope of Protection: Grounds and Contexts|93
4|3.1 Scope of Protection: Protected Grounds of Discrimination|93
5|3.1.1 Antidiscrimination Statutes: Grounds of Discrimination|93
5|3.1.2 Constitutional Protections: Enumerated and Analogous Grounds|94
4|3.2 Scope of Protection: In What Context and Sectors Are Individuals and Groups Protected?|95
5|3.2.1 Protected Contexts and Sectors: Antidiscrimination Statutes (see Appendix)|95
5|3.2.2 The Scope of Constitutional Protections|96
3|4 Remedies|97
4|4.1 Remedies Under Antidiscrimination Statutes|97
5|4.1.1 Remedies for Past Discrimination|97
5|4.1.2 Systemic Remedies: Proactive and Preventive|98
4|4.2 Constitutional Remedies|99
3|5 Public Responsibility, Civil Society and the Role of Private Actors|100
3|6 Effective Enforcement and Different Grounds of Protection|101
3|7 Individual Versus Systemic Approaches|102
3|8 The Challenges and Specificity of Enforcing Antidiscrimination Law|104
3|9 Conclusion: Canadian Law and Society Through the Lens of Antidiscrimination Law|106
3|Appendix|107
3|References|109
2|Canada|112
3|1 Introduction|112
3|2 Le droit de la non-discrimination est-il mis en œuvre?|113
3|3 Comment le droit à la non-discrimination est-il mis en œuvre ?|114
3|4 Qui met en œuvre le droit de la non-discrimination?|115
3|5 À qui profite la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination?|116
3|6 Qui est lésé par la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination ?|117
3|7 Quelles réparations sont prévues pour mettre en œuvre le droit de la non-discrimination?|119
3|8 Qui soutient la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination ?|120
3|9 Qui s´oppose au droit de la non-discrimination ?|121
3|10 Quelle est la portée du droit de la non-discrimination?|122
3|11 La mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination varie-t-elle en fonction du critère discriminatoire ?|123
3|12 Quel est le rapport entre la mise en œuvre de la non-discrimination et la recherche d´égalité au niveau individuel et systé...|124
3|13 La mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination est-elle perçue comme distincte de la mise en œuvre d´autres lois?|125
3|14 Que révèle la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination sur la nature de votre système juridique et sur l´application...|126
3|15 Conclusion|128
3|References|129
2|Croatia|130
3|1 Introduction|130
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|131
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|133
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|134
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|136
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|137
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|139
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|140
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|142
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|143
3|11 Does Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|144
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|146
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|147
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|149
3|15 Conclusion|150
3|References|152
2|Czech Republic|153
3|1 Introduction|153
3|2 Constitutional and International Basis of the Czech Antidiscrimination Law|154
4|2.1 Constitutional Basis of the Prohibition of Discrimination|154
4|2.2 International Law Regarding Discrimination|155
3|3 National Legislation on the Matters of Discrimination|157
4|3.1 Antidiscrimination Act|157
4|3.2 Antidiscrimination Provisions in Private Law|158
4|3.3 Antidiscrimination Provisions in Civil Law|158
4|3.4 Antidiscrimination Provisions in Labour Law|159
4|3.5 Antidiscrimination Provisions in Criminal Law|161
4|3.6 Antidiscrimination Provisions in Administrative Law|162
3|4 Sanctions for Discriminatory Conduct|163
4|4.1 Civil Sanctions|163
4|4.2 Criminal Sanctions|164
4|4.3 Administrative Sanctions|164
3|5 Judicial Review of Discrimination Cases|165
4|5.1 Civil Procedure|165
5|5.1.1 Burden of Proof|166
5|5.1.2 Actio Popularis|167
4|5.2 Criminal Procedure|167
4|5.3 Administrative Procedure|167
3|6 Other State Authorities Entitled to Enforcement of the Antidiscrimination Law|168
4|6.1 The Public Defender of Rights|168
4|6.2 Other State Authorities|169
3|7 The Role of the NGOs|169
3|8 Deficiencies of the Enforcement Mechanisms of the Antidiscrimination Law|170
3|9 Overall Assessment of the Situation Regarding Discrimination in the Czech Republic|171
3|References|172
2|Denmark|174
3|1 Introduction|174
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|176
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|177
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|178
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|179
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|180
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|180
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|182
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|182
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|182
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|183
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|184
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|185
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|185
3|15 Conclusion|186
3|References|187
2|France: le jeu des acteurs|188
3|1 Introduction|188
3|2 Le droit de la non-discrimination est-il mis en œuvre?|189
3|3 COMMENT est-il mis en œuvre?|190
3|4 QUI met en œuvre le droit de la non-discrimination?|192
3|5 A QUI PROFITE la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination?|194
3|6 QUI EST LESE par la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination?|198
3|7 QUELLES REPARATIONS sont prévues pour mettre en œuvre le droit de la non-discrimination ?|198
3|8 QUI SOUTIENT la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination?|199
3|9 QUI S´OPPOSE au droit de la non-discrimination?|201
3|10 QUELLE EST LA PORTEE du droit de la non-discrimination?|202
3|11 LA MISE EN OEUVRE DU DROIT DE LA NON DISCRIMINATION VARIE-T-ELLE en fonction du critère discriminatoire?|204
3|12 QUEL EST LE RAPPORT entre la mise en œuvre de la non-discrimination et la recherche d´égalité au niveau individuel et systé...|206
4|12.1 L´égalité formelle: un fondement opératoire du droit français|207
4|12.2 L´impact du principe de discrimination indirecte|209
3|13 LA MISE EN OEUVRE DU DROIT DE LA NON DISCRIMINATION EST-ELLE PERCUE COMME DISTINCTE de la mise en œuvre d´autres lois?|210
3|14 QUE REVELE LA MISE EN OEUVRE DU DROIT DE LA NON DISCRIMINATION sur la nature de votre système juridique et sur la mise en œ...|211
3|15 Conclusion|212
3|Reference|213
2|Discrimination Et Matiere Penale En France|214
3|1 Le droit de la non-discrimination, un droit amplement consacré dans la matière pénale|214
4|1.1 Une mise en œuvre dans un sens répressif|215
4|1.2 Une mise en œuvre effective du droit de la non-discrimination dans une optique préventive.|218
3|2 Une mise en œuvre effective du droit de la non-discrimination dans la matière pénale?|219
3|3 Les acteurs du droit de la non-discrimination en matière pénale|222
3|4 A qui profite la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination en matière pénale?|224
3|5 Qui est lésé par la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination en matière pénale?|224
3|6 Quelles réparations et sanctions sont prévues pour mettre en œuvre le droit de la non-discrimination en matière pénale?|225
3|7 Qui soutient la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination en matière pénale?|226
3|8 Quelle est la portée effective du droit de la non-discrimination dans la matière pénale?|227
3|9 La mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination en matière pénale varie-t-elle en fonction du critère discriminatoire?|228
3|10 Quel est le rapport entre la mise en œuvre de la non-discrimination en matière pénale et la recherche d´égalité au niveau i...|231
3|11 La mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination en matière pénale est-elle perçue comme distincte de la mise en œuvre d´...|232
3|12 Que révèle la mise en œuvre du droit de la non-discrimination en matière pénale sur la nature de votre système juridique et...|233
3|References|235
2|France and the Netherlands: Toward Convergence?|238
3|1 Introduction|238
3|2 Non-discrimination and the Principle of Equality|239
4|2.1 Equality in the French Republic: Interpreting the Legal and Political Principle|240
4|2.2 The Netherlands: An Exemplary Model of Equality?|242
3|3 The Actors Involved in Non-discrimination|244
4|3.1 France: A Multiplicity of Actors and a Need for Coordination|244
4|3.2 The Netherlands: Decentralization and Coordination|246
3|4 The Law and Non-discrimination Policies: A Paradoxical Relationship|248
4|4.1 France: The Law on the Sidelines|248
4|4.2 The Netherlands: A Mixed Relationship with the Law|251
3|5 Conclusion|253
3|References|253
2|Germany|256
3|1 Introduction and Overview of Antidiscrimination Legislation|256
4|1.1 Constitutional Principle of Equal Treatment|256
4|1.2 General Equal Treatment Act|257
5|1.2.1 Application in Labour Law|258
5|1.2.2 Application in Private Law|259
4|1.3 Further Sources of Antidiscrimination Law in the German Legal System|259
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|259
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|260
4|3.1 Enforcement in the Private Sector|260
4|3.2 Enforcement in Public Employment Law and Other Fields of Public Law|261
4|3.3 Alternative Dispute Resolution|262
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|262
4|4.1 Affected Person|262
4|4.2 Antidiscrimination Organisations|262
4|4.3 Federal Antidiscrimination Agency|264
4|4.4 Trade Offices (Gewerbeämter)|264
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|265
4|5.1 Employees|265
4|5.2 Particularly: Female Employees in the Public Sector|265
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|266
4|6.1 Persons Bound by Antidiscrimination Laws|266
4|6.2 Discrimination by Positive Measures?|267
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|268
4|7.1 Remedies in Private Labour Law|268
4|7.2 Remedies in Public Labour Law|269
4|7.3 Remedies in Private Law (Other Than Employment Law)|270
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|271
4|8.1 Federal Antidiscrimination Agency|271
4|8.2 Commissioners for Matters Relating to Disabled Persons|271
4|8.3 Equal Opportunity Commissioners (Gleichstellungsbeauftragte)|272
4|8.4 Private Antidiscrimination Organisations|272
4|8.5 Worker´s Councils and Trade Unions|273
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|273
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|274
4|10.1 Public Law|274
4|10.2 Private Employment Law|274
4|10.3 Other Fields of Civil Law|275
3|11 Does Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|276
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|277
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|278
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|279
3|References|279
2|Greece|281
3|1 Introduction|281
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|282
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|282
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|283
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|285
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|286
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|286
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|288
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|288
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|288
3|11 Does Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|289
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|289
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded As Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|289
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|290
3|15 Conclusion|290
2|India|292
3|1 Introduction|292
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|293
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|294
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|295
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|296
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|297
3|7 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|298
3|8 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|299
3|9 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|300
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|301
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|302
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|302
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|303
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|304
3|15 Conclusion|305
3|References|306
2|Israel|308
3|1 Introduction|308
4|1.1 Recognized Disadvantaged and Discriminated-Against Groups in Israel|308
4|1.2 Public and Private Law|309
3|2 Are Antidiscrimination Laws Enforced?|310
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|310
3|4 Who Enforces the Antidiscrimination Laws?|311
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Laws?|313
3|6 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Laws?|313
3|7 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Laws?|314
3|8 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Laws?|315
3|9 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Laws?|315
4|9.1 Existing Legislation in Israel|316
4|9.2 Legislation That Does Not Exist in Israel|320
4|9.3 Bills Pending|320
3|10 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Laws Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|320
3|11 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|322
4|11.1 The Labor Market: Introduction|322
4|11.2 Women|324
4|11.3 Mizrachi Jews|324
4|11.4 Arabs|325
4|11.5 The Elderly|326
4|11.6 Sexual Orientation|327
3|12 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|328
3|13 Conclusion|330
3|References|330
2|Italy|332
3|1 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|332
4|1.1 Article 43 of Legislative Decree no. 286 of 25 July 98 (Testo Unico Immigrazione, Consolidated Immigration Act)|332
4|1.2 Legislative Decree no. 215 of 9 July 2003|333
4|1.3 Legislative Decree no. 216 of 9 July 2003|333
4|1.4 Legislative Decree no. 198 of 11 April 2006 (Gender Equal Opportunities Code)|333
4|1.5 Law no. 67 of 1 March 2006|334
3|2 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|334
4|2.1 Various Grounds of Discrimination|334
4|2.2 Fast-Track Proceedings|335
4|2.3 Enforcing Equality Bodies|336
5|2.3.1 Ufficio Nazionale contro le discriminazioni razziali (UNAR), (National Bureau Against Race Discrimination)|337
5|2.3.2 Consigliera di Parità (Gender Equality Advisor)|337
3|3 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|338
3|4 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|339
3|5 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|341
3|6 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|341
3|7 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|342
3|8 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|342
3|9 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|343
3|10 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|343
3|11 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|345
3|12 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|346
3|13 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|347
3|14 Conclusion|347
3|References|348
2|Japan|350
3|1 Introduction|350
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|351
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|353
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|354
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|356
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|357
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|358
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|359
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|360
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|360
3|11 Does Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|361
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|362
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|363
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|363
3|15 Conclusion|364
3|Reference|364
2|Republic of Korea|366
3|1 Introduction|366
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|368
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|368
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|369
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|370
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|370
3|7 What Remedies May Be Provided Through Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|371
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|372
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|372
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of South Korea´s Antidiscrimination Laws?|373
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Grounds of Discrimination?|374
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|375
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|375
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|376
3|15 Conclusion|377
2|Liban (Lebanon)|379
3|1 Introduction|379
3|2 Première Partie : La description du droit libanais de la non-discrimination|380
3|3 Deuxième Partie : La portée du droit libanais de la non-discrimination|382
3|4 Conclusion|386
3|Bibliographie|387
2|Portugal|388
3|1 Introduction|388
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|389
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|389
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|390
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|392
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|394
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|394
4|7.1 Judicial Procedures|394
4|7.2 Alternative Disputes Resolution for Private Sector in Labour Law|395
4|7.3 Administrative Procedures and Administrative Courts for Public Sector|396
4|7.4 Criminal Law Procedures|396
4|7.5 Civil Law Procedures|396
4|7.6 Administrative Procedures for Private Sector|396
4|7.7 Ombudsman|397
4|7.8 Actions by Public Bodies|397
5|7.8.1 The High Commissioner for Migrations|397
5|7.8.2 The Gender Equality Agency in the Field of Employment (CITE)|397
5|7.8.3 The Commission for Citizenship and Gender Equality (CIG)|398
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|398
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|398
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|399
4|10.1 European Union Law|399
4|10.2 International Law|400
4|10.3 Domestic Law|401
5|10.3.1 Constitutional Law|401
5|10.3.2 Domestic Legislation|402
6|General Legislation|403
6|Specific Legislation|403
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|405
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|406
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded As Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|406
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|406
3|15 Conclusion|407
3|References|408
2|Romania|410
3|1 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|410
3|2 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|416
3|3 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|419
3|4 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|419
3|5 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|421
3|6 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|421
3|7 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|421
3|8 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|421
3|9 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|422
3|10 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|422
3|11 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|422
3|12 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|422
3|13 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|423
3|14 Conclusions|423
3|References|424
2|South Africa|426
3|1 South African Antidiscrimination Law in Context|426
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|430
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|431
4|3.1 Antidiscrimination Law in the Context of Education|431
4|3.2 A-D Law in the Workplace and in the Context of Economic Empowerment|433
4|3.3 A-D Law in the Broader Social Context Including Access to Housing and Other Public Accommodation|433
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|435
4|4.1 Public Institutions and Processes Involved in Enforcing Antidiscrimination Law|435
5|4.1.1 Chapter 9 Institutions|435
5|4.1.2 Education|436
5|4.1.3 Employment and Economic Opportunities|436
4|4.2 Judicial Processes (Courts and Tribunals) Enforcing Antidiscrimination Law|437
4|4.3 The Triggering of Judicial Enforcement|438
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|439
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|440
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|441
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|443
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|444
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|444
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|446
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|447
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded As Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|448
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|449
3|15 Conclusion|450
3|References|450
2|Spain|452
3|1 Introduction|452
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|453
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|454
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|455
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|456
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|457
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|458
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|459
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|460
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|461
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|462
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|463
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded As Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|464
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|465
3|15 Conclusions|466
4|15.1 The Enforcement of Antidiscriminatory Law Is at the Center of Public Policies and Private Decisions|466
4|15.2 The Enforcement of Antidiscriminatory Law Tries to Get Social Participation in Equal Conditions|467
4|15.3 The Enforcement of Antidiscriminatory Law Relies on Different Levels of Protection Depending on the Ground|467
3|References|467
2|Turkey|470
3|1 Introduction|470
3|2 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|471
3|3 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|474
3|4 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|477
3|5 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|477
3|6 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|478
3|7 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|480
3|8 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|480
3|9 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|480
3|10 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|483
3|11 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|483
3|12 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|484
3|13 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|484
3|14 Conclusion|485
3|References|485
3|Relevant National Regulations|485
2|United Kingdom|487
3|1 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|487
4|1.1 Introduction|487
4|1.2 The Legislative Framework|487
4|1.3 Awareness of the Law|489
4|1.4 Patterns of Individual Enforcement|489
4|1.5 Recent Developments|491
4|1.6 An Alternative Model? Positive Duties|492
4|1.7 Conclusion|493
3|2 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|493
3|3 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|495
3|4 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|496
3|5 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|497
3|6 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|498
3|7 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|499
3|8 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|500
3|9 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|501
3|10 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|502
3|11 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|504
3|12 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|504
3|13 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|505
3|References|505
2|The United States|507
3|1 Introduction|507
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|508
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|508
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|509
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|510
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|510
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|511
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|512
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|512
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|513
3|11 Does Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Ground of Discrimination?|515
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|516
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|517
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|518
3|15 Conclusion|520
3|References|521
1|Part III: Regional Reports|522
2|European Convention of Human Rights/Council of Europe|523
3|1 Introduction|523
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|524
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|524
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|525
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|526
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|526
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|527
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|528
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|529
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|530
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Grounds of Discrimination?|531
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|532
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|532
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|533
3|15 Conclusion|533
3|References|533
2|The Inter-American Court of Human Rights|535
3|1 Introduction|535
3|2 Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|536
3|3 How Is Antidiscrimination Law Enforced?|537
3|4 Who Enforces Antidiscrimination Law?|538
3|5 Who Benefits from the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|539
3|6 Who Is Harmed by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|541
3|7 What Remedies Are Provided by the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|542
3|8 Who Supports the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|544
3|9 Who Opposes the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law?|545
3|10 How Broad Is the Coverage of Antidiscrimination Law?|546
3|11 Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Vary According to the Grounds of Discrimination?|547
3|12 What Is the Relationship Between the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law and the Quest for Equality on Both an Individual...|549
3|13 Is the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Regarded as Different from the Enforcement of Other Laws?|550
3|14 What Does the Enforcement of Antidiscrimination Law Reveal About the Nature of Your Legal System or About the Enforcement o...|551
3|15 Conclusion|552
3|References|553
1|Appendix A: Questionnaire|555
1|Appendix B: Meet the Editors|556