File #2336: "2018_Book_ThePoliceAndInternationalHuman.pdf"
Text
1|Contents|5
1|About the Authors|7
1|Chapter 1: Introduction: The Police, a Key Actor in Human Rights Protection|14
1|Chapter 2: Police and Human Rights: Fundamental Questions|19
2|2.1 Introduction|20
2|2.2 What Branches of International Law Are Relevant to Police?|21
2|2.3 What Are the Purposes and Scope of These Branches of Law?|22
2|2.4 What Is the Relationship Between Human Rights and Policing?|22
2|2.5 Which Human Rights Instruments Are Relevant to Police?|23
2|2.6 Which Human Rights Provisions Are of Particular Relevance to Police?|24
2|2.7 How Does the International System Protect Specific Human Rights?|25
3|2.7.1 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and International Treaties|26
3|2.7.2 Measures to Prevent Torture and Ill-Treatment|26
3|2.7.3 Non-treaty Instruments|26
2|2.8 What Are the Limitations on Human Rights and How Can They Be Restricted in Times of National Emergency?|27
2|2.9 What Are the Laws of War and How Are They Relevant to Police?|27
3|2.9.1 What Are the Scope and Purposes of Laws of War?|28
3|2.9.2 What Types of Conflict Do They Regulate?|28
3|2.9.3 How Are Combatants and Civilians Defined?|28
3|2.9.4 What Are the Status and Functions of Police in Situations of Armed Conflict?|29
3|2.9.5 What Is the Relationship of Police to the Laws of War?|29
3|2.9.6 What Are Some Examples of the Laws of War?|30
2|2.10 Conclusions|31
2|References|31
1|Chapter 3: The Police and the Prohibition of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment|33
2|3.1 Introduction|34
2|3.2 Police Powers and Human Rights|34
2|3.3 Definition of Torture and/or Other Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment and Applicable Provisions|35
2|3.4 The Police and Persons in Situations of Vulnerability: The Prevention of Torture and/or Other Inhuman or Degrading Treatme...|39
2|3.5 Prevention of Torture and/or Other Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment During Police Detention|41
2|3.6 The Prohibition of the Use of Evidence Obtained by Torture|42
2|3.7 Torture and Inhuman and/or Degrading Treatment Between Detained Persons|43
2|3.8 The Police´s Obligation to Prevent Violations of Article 3 of the European Convention|43
2|3.9 Some Case Examples of Torture from Case Law|45
3|3.9.1 Palestinian Hanging|45
3|3.9.2 Electric Shocks|45
3|3.9.3 Combination of Torture Methods|46
3|3.9.4 Beating, Threats Against Life and Family, Sexual Intimidation, and Humiliation|46
3|3.9.5 Forced Feeding in a Particularly Violent and Humiliating Manner|47
3|3.9.6 Rape (and/or Threat of Rape)|48
2|3.10 Some Case Examples of Inhuman Treatment|48
3|3.10.1 Medical Intervention in Order to Obtain Evidence|48
3|3.10.2 Detention of Children|49
3|3.10.3 Mental Suffering|49
3|3.10.4 Degrading Treatment or Punishment|50
3|3.10.5 Conditions of Detention|50
2|3.11 Conclusions|50
2|References|51
2|Cases|52
1|Chapter 4: The Police and the Right to Life|54
2|4.1 Introduction|55
2|4.2 Article 2 ECHR: Scope of Protection|57
2|4.3 Justification of a Deprivation of the Right to Life|58
2|4.4 Principle of Proportionality: Necessity of the Use of Force|60
3|4.4.1 ECtHR, McCann et al./United Kingdom, 27 Sept. 1995, No. 18984/91|61
3|4.4.2 ECtHR, Andronicou and Constantinou/Cyprus, 9 Oct. 1997, No. 25052/94|61
3|4.4.3 ECtHR (GC), Makaratzis/Greece, 20 Dec. 2004, No. 50385/99|62
3|4.4.4 ECtHR, Wasilewska and Kalucka/Poland, 23 Feb. 2010, Nos. 28975/04 and 33406/04|63
3|4.4.5 ECtHR (GC), Giuliani and Gaggio/Italy, 24 March 2011, No. 23458/02|63
3|4.4.6 ECtHR, Finogenov et al./Russia, 20 Dec. 2011, Nos. 18299/03 and 27311/03|64
3|4.4.7 ECtHR, Fanziyeva/Russia, 18 June 2015, No. 41675/80|65
2|4.5 Use of Electroshock Devices and Electrical Discharge Weapons (Taser)|66
3|4.5.1 ECtHR, Fox/United Kingdom, 20 March 2012, No. 61319/09|67
3|4.5.2 ECtHR, Anzhelo Georgiev et al./Bulgaria, 30 Sept. 2014, No. 51284/09|67
2|4.6 Conclusions|69
2|References|70
2|Cases|70
1|Chapter 5: Command Responsibility and the Use of Force by the Police|71
2|5.1 Introduction|72
2|5.2 Command/Superior Responsibility for Own Actions and Omissions|74
3|5.2.1 Orders|74
3|5.2.2 Planning, Preparation and Precaution|76
2|5.3 Responsibility for the Operational Framework|80
3|5.3.1 Regulations and Procedures|80
3|5.3.2 Equipment|82
3|5.3.3 Training|84
2|5.4 Ensuring Accountability|85
3|5.4.1 Supervision, Control and Corrective Measures|85
3|5.4.2 Effective Investigations|87
2|5.5 Conclusions|89
2|Appendix|90
2|References|91
2|Court cases|92
1|Chapter 6: Effective Investigation of Alleged Police Human Rights Abuse: Combating Impunity|93
2|6.1 Introduction|93
2|6.2 A Short Introduction to the Duty to Investigate Allegations of Human Rights Abuse|96
2|6.3 Combating Impunity|99
2|6.4 Operational and Policy Imperatives of Effective Investigation|105
2|6.5 Conclusions|109
2|References|110
1|Chapter 7: The Deprivation of Liberty by the Police. International Parameters and the Jurisprudence of the European Court of H...|112
2|7.1 Introduction|113
2|7.2 What Is Deprivation of Liberty?|115
2|7.3 Detention as Last Resort, as Subsidiary Remedy, as Is the Use of Force|118
2|7.4 Legitimate Grounds for Detention|119
2|7.5 Detainee´s Rights|122
3|7.5.1 Information|122
3|7.5.2 Legal Assistance|123
3|7.5.3 Access to Medical Examination|124
3|7.5.4 The Detainee Should Promptly Be Brought Before a Judge and a Decision on the Continuity of the Detention or the Release ...|124
3|7.5.5 To Be Entitled to Trial in a Reasonable Time|127
3|7.5.6 To Have the Right to Present a Habeas Corpus|127
3|7.5.7 Cells and Detention Conditions|127
3|7.5.8 A Single Report as a Guarantee|129
2|7.6 Conclusions|130
2|References|132
1|Chapter 8: Police Powers and Criminal Investigations|133
2|8.1 Introduction: The Police and Human Rights|133
2|8.2 The Duty to Intervene and to Investigate|135
2|8.3 The Duty to Act Only with Lawful Authority|140
2|8.4 The Duty to Act in a Proportionate Manner|145
2|8.5 The Duty to Act Fairly|152
2|8.6 Conclusions|159
2|Reference|160
2|Cases|160
1|Chapter 9: Surveillance Powers of the Police and the Protection of Personal Data|162
2|9.1 Surveillance and Privacy|163
3|9.1.1 Police and Security Services|164
3|9.1.2 The Right to Privacy|165
2|9.2 The Council of Europe|165
3|9.2.1 The European Court of Human Rights and Surveillance|165
4|9.2.1.1 The Zakharov Case|166
4|9.2.1.2 The Szabó Case|168
3|9.2.2 The Cybercrime Convention|169
4|9.2.2.1 Issues with the Cybercrime Convention|170
3|9.2.3 The Commissioner for Human Rights|172
4|9.2.3.1 The Role of the Commissioner for Human Rights|172
4|9.2.3.2 The Commissioner for Human Rights on Surveillance|173
2|9.3 The European Union|173
3|9.3.1 EU Law|173
3|9.3.2 Collection and Exchange of Data in the EU and Between the EU and Third States|175
4|9.3.2.1 The EU PNR Directive|175
4|9.3.2.2 The EU PNR Agreements with the USA and Canada|176
4|9.3.2.3 The EU Data Retention Directive|178
4|9.3.2.4 The Data Protection Reform|179
4|9.3.2.5 The SWIFT Agreement Between the EU and the USA|180
4|9.3.2.6 The Resolution and the Follow-Up Resolution of the European Parliament on Surveillance Programmes|181
2|9.4 German Law on Surveillance|182
2|9.5 The Fight Against Terrorism|183
3|9.5.1 The EU and the Fight Against Terrorism|183
3|9.5.2 The International Fight Against Terrorism|185
2|9.6 Approach of Differentiation|185
2|References|187
1|Chapter 10: The Protection Against Crime as a Human Right: Positive Obligations of the Police|188
2|10.1 Introduction|189
2|10.2 International/National Constitutional Review: Harmonising Police Duties|191
2|10.3 The General Scope of Constitutional Review of Police Duties: The Framework of Positive Obligations|194
2|10.4 Preliminary Positive Obligations of the State Conditioning Those of the Police|195
2|10.5 Crime in Human Rights Law: Human Rights x Locus Standi of the Individual|198
2|10.6 Determining Police Duties: How and When to Protect|201
2|10.7 Police Duties Before Harm Has Been Suffered: The Ex Ante Framework|203
3|10.7.1 Systemic Duties of the Police|204
3|10.7.2 When Does the Duty of Protection of the Specific Individual Arise?|205
3|10.7.3 Determining the Content of Police Duties: The Question of How to Protect|209
2|10.8 Police Duties Where Harm Has Already Been Suffered: The Ex Post Framework - Primary Focus on the Duty of Investigation|210
2|10.9 Limits to Police Duties|214
3|10.9.1 Conflicts of Rights|214
3|10.9.2 Limited Resources|217
2|10.10 Conclusion|218
2|References|221
1|Chapter 11: The Police and the Human Right to Peaceful Assembly|223
2|11.1 Introduction|224
2|11.2 Regulatory Framework for Police Activity: Selected Aspects|227
3|11.2.1 Peaceful Assembly|227
3|11.2.2 Positive Obligations to Ensure the Right to Peaceful Assembly|229
3|11.2.3 Possible Interferences with the Right to Peaceful Assembly|230
3|11.2.4 Justification of Interferences|232
3|11.2.5 Assemblies Without Prior Notification or Authorisation|234
3|11.2.6 Spontaneous Assemblies|235
3|11.2.7 Police Officials as Demonstrators|235
2|11.3 Good Practices in Policing Public Assemblies in Consistency with Human Rights Standards|236
3|11.3.1 Changing Police Approach to Public Assemblies in Light of Developing Case Law|236
3|11.3.2 Key Elements of Police Professionalism in Connection with Public Assemblies|237
4|11.3.2.1 Organisational Culture Based on Human Rights and Police Ethics|238
4|11.3.2.2 Police as Facilitator: Need for Flexibility|238
4|11.3.2.3 Continuous Communication with Organisers, Participants and the Wider Public as Means of Choice|239
4|11.3.2.4 Neutrality|241
4|11.3.2.5 Planning Procedures and Preparatory Measures: Centrality of Knowledge|241
4|11.3.2.6 Measures to Prevent the Outbreak of Violence|242
4|11.3.2.7 Differentiation: Targeted Intervention and Minimum Use of Force|242
4|11.3.2.8 Limitations to Police Discretion: Necessity and Proportionality|244
4|11.3.2.9 Transparency|245
4|11.3.2.10 Accountability|245
4|11.3.2.11 After the Event: De-briefing and Evaluation|246
4|11.3.2.12 Training|246
2|11.4 Conclusions and Outlook|246
2|References|248
1|Chapter 12: United Nations Police Missions and Human Rights|250
2|12.1 Introduction|251
2|12.2 Police in Terms of the United Nations?|253
2|12.3 Legal Framework|256
2|12.4 Levels of Human Rights Involvement in Peacekeeping|259
3|12.4.1 Law of the Host State|259
3|12.4.2 Law of the Police-Contributing States|260
4|12.4.2.1 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)|262
4|12.4.2.2 European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)|263
4|12.4.2.3 International Court of Justice (ICJ)|266
4|12.4.2.4 Conclusion|266
3|12.4.3 The United Nations|267
2|12.5 Human Rights Violations, Responsibility, and Immunity|269
3|12.5.1 Human Rights Violations by UN Police Members and Immunities of UN Police Personnel|269
3|12.5.2 Responsibility of the United Nations|273
2|12.6 Human Rights in `Policekeeping´ Practice|274
3|12.6.1 Protection of Civilians|274
3|12.6.2 Use of Force and Firearms|276
3|12.6.3 Arrest and Detention|278
2|12.7 Conclusions|279
2|References|280
1|Chapter 13: Police Training and International Human Rights Standards|284
2|13.1 Introduction|285
2|13.2 The Setting: Human Rights Training of Police|286
3|13.2.1 What Is Training and What Is Human Rights Training?|286
3|13.2.2 The International Legal Framework for Human Rights Training of Police|288
3|13.2.3 Integrating Human Rights in Police Training|292
3|13.2.4 Didactics:Principles of Effective Human Rights Trainings|294
3|13.2.5 Human Rights Training in the Broader Context of Police Organizations|296
2|13.3 Dimensions and Elements of Human Rights Training|298
3|13.3.1 Introduction: The Triangle of Human Rights Education|298
3|13.3.2 Knowledge and Understanding About Human Rights|300
4|13.3.2.1 Foundational Knowledge 1: Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Corresponding Obligations|300
4|13.3.2.2 Foundational Knowledge 2: The Double Role of Police with Regard to Human Rights|302
4|13.3.2.3 Specialized Knowledge: Human Rights Norms and Procedures|303
3|13.3.3 Skills and Human Rights|304
4|13.3.3.1 Operational Skills|304
4|13.3.3.2 Analytical and Reflection Skills|305
3|13.3.4 Attitude and Human Rights|306
2|13.4 Conclusions|307
2|References|308
1|Chapter 14: The European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Its Work with the Police|310
2|14.1 The CPT|311
2|14.2 Visiting a Police Station|313
3|14.2.1 Interrogation|314
3|14.2.2 Use of Force|316
3|14.2.3 The Example of Electrical Discharge Weapons (EDW), Taser|316
2|14.3 Impact of the Work of the CPT: Some Cautious Observations|317
3|14.3.1 Changes in Police, Remand and Foreign Immigration Establishments|318
3|14.3.2 Conference Reports and Academic Papers|320
2|14.4 Conclusions|321
2|References|323
1|Chapter 15: The Police and the Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture of the United Nations. National Preventive Mechanisms|325
2|15.1 Introduction|326
2|15.2 The Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (SPT) and Its Ins...|327
3|15.2.1 The Adoption of the Optional Protocol to the Convention Against Torture (OPCAT) and Its Application in Macedonia|327
3|15.2.2 The SPT´s State Visits|328
3|15.2.3 The Application of the SPT´s Visit Report´s Recommendations on a National Level|329
3|15.2.4 The Adaptation of a Standard Operational Procedure (SOP) in Macedonia|330
2|15.3 Macedonia´s Progress Toward Full Respect of Human Rights|330
3|15.3.1 Police Powers and Their Usage in Actual Police Work|331
3|15.3.2 Oversight of Police Powers in Macedonia|333
2|15.4 Conclusions|334
1|About the Authors|7
1|Chapter 1: Introduction: The Police, a Key Actor in Human Rights Protection|14
1|Chapter 2: Police and Human Rights: Fundamental Questions|19
2|2.1 Introduction|20
2|2.2 What Branches of International Law Are Relevant to Police?|21
2|2.3 What Are the Purposes and Scope of These Branches of Law?|22
2|2.4 What Is the Relationship Between Human Rights and Policing?|22
2|2.5 Which Human Rights Instruments Are Relevant to Police?|23
2|2.6 Which Human Rights Provisions Are of Particular Relevance to Police?|24
2|2.7 How Does the International System Protect Specific Human Rights?|25
3|2.7.1 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and International Treaties|26
3|2.7.2 Measures to Prevent Torture and Ill-Treatment|26
3|2.7.3 Non-treaty Instruments|26
2|2.8 What Are the Limitations on Human Rights and How Can They Be Restricted in Times of National Emergency?|27
2|2.9 What Are the Laws of War and How Are They Relevant to Police?|27
3|2.9.1 What Are the Scope and Purposes of Laws of War?|28
3|2.9.2 What Types of Conflict Do They Regulate?|28
3|2.9.3 How Are Combatants and Civilians Defined?|28
3|2.9.4 What Are the Status and Functions of Police in Situations of Armed Conflict?|29
3|2.9.5 What Is the Relationship of Police to the Laws of War?|29
3|2.9.6 What Are Some Examples of the Laws of War?|30
2|2.10 Conclusions|31
2|References|31
1|Chapter 3: The Police and the Prohibition of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment|33
2|3.1 Introduction|34
2|3.2 Police Powers and Human Rights|34
2|3.3 Definition of Torture and/or Other Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment and Applicable Provisions|35
2|3.4 The Police and Persons in Situations of Vulnerability: The Prevention of Torture and/or Other Inhuman or Degrading Treatme...|39
2|3.5 Prevention of Torture and/or Other Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment During Police Detention|41
2|3.6 The Prohibition of the Use of Evidence Obtained by Torture|42
2|3.7 Torture and Inhuman and/or Degrading Treatment Between Detained Persons|43
2|3.8 The Police´s Obligation to Prevent Violations of Article 3 of the European Convention|43
2|3.9 Some Case Examples of Torture from Case Law|45
3|3.9.1 Palestinian Hanging|45
3|3.9.2 Electric Shocks|45
3|3.9.3 Combination of Torture Methods|46
3|3.9.4 Beating, Threats Against Life and Family, Sexual Intimidation, and Humiliation|46
3|3.9.5 Forced Feeding in a Particularly Violent and Humiliating Manner|47
3|3.9.6 Rape (and/or Threat of Rape)|48
2|3.10 Some Case Examples of Inhuman Treatment|48
3|3.10.1 Medical Intervention in Order to Obtain Evidence|48
3|3.10.2 Detention of Children|49
3|3.10.3 Mental Suffering|49
3|3.10.4 Degrading Treatment or Punishment|50
3|3.10.5 Conditions of Detention|50
2|3.11 Conclusions|50
2|References|51
2|Cases|52
1|Chapter 4: The Police and the Right to Life|54
2|4.1 Introduction|55
2|4.2 Article 2 ECHR: Scope of Protection|57
2|4.3 Justification of a Deprivation of the Right to Life|58
2|4.4 Principle of Proportionality: Necessity of the Use of Force|60
3|4.4.1 ECtHR, McCann et al./United Kingdom, 27 Sept. 1995, No. 18984/91|61
3|4.4.2 ECtHR, Andronicou and Constantinou/Cyprus, 9 Oct. 1997, No. 25052/94|61
3|4.4.3 ECtHR (GC), Makaratzis/Greece, 20 Dec. 2004, No. 50385/99|62
3|4.4.4 ECtHR, Wasilewska and Kalucka/Poland, 23 Feb. 2010, Nos. 28975/04 and 33406/04|63
3|4.4.5 ECtHR (GC), Giuliani and Gaggio/Italy, 24 March 2011, No. 23458/02|63
3|4.4.6 ECtHR, Finogenov et al./Russia, 20 Dec. 2011, Nos. 18299/03 and 27311/03|64
3|4.4.7 ECtHR, Fanziyeva/Russia, 18 June 2015, No. 41675/80|65
2|4.5 Use of Electroshock Devices and Electrical Discharge Weapons (Taser)|66
3|4.5.1 ECtHR, Fox/United Kingdom, 20 March 2012, No. 61319/09|67
3|4.5.2 ECtHR, Anzhelo Georgiev et al./Bulgaria, 30 Sept. 2014, No. 51284/09|67
2|4.6 Conclusions|69
2|References|70
2|Cases|70
1|Chapter 5: Command Responsibility and the Use of Force by the Police|71
2|5.1 Introduction|72
2|5.2 Command/Superior Responsibility for Own Actions and Omissions|74
3|5.2.1 Orders|74
3|5.2.2 Planning, Preparation and Precaution|76
2|5.3 Responsibility for the Operational Framework|80
3|5.3.1 Regulations and Procedures|80
3|5.3.2 Equipment|82
3|5.3.3 Training|84
2|5.4 Ensuring Accountability|85
3|5.4.1 Supervision, Control and Corrective Measures|85
3|5.4.2 Effective Investigations|87
2|5.5 Conclusions|89
2|Appendix|90
2|References|91
2|Court cases|92
1|Chapter 6: Effective Investigation of Alleged Police Human Rights Abuse: Combating Impunity|93
2|6.1 Introduction|93
2|6.2 A Short Introduction to the Duty to Investigate Allegations of Human Rights Abuse|96
2|6.3 Combating Impunity|99
2|6.4 Operational and Policy Imperatives of Effective Investigation|105
2|6.5 Conclusions|109
2|References|110
1|Chapter 7: The Deprivation of Liberty by the Police. International Parameters and the Jurisprudence of the European Court of H...|112
2|7.1 Introduction|113
2|7.2 What Is Deprivation of Liberty?|115
2|7.3 Detention as Last Resort, as Subsidiary Remedy, as Is the Use of Force|118
2|7.4 Legitimate Grounds for Detention|119
2|7.5 Detainee´s Rights|122
3|7.5.1 Information|122
3|7.5.2 Legal Assistance|123
3|7.5.3 Access to Medical Examination|124
3|7.5.4 The Detainee Should Promptly Be Brought Before a Judge and a Decision on the Continuity of the Detention or the Release ...|124
3|7.5.5 To Be Entitled to Trial in a Reasonable Time|127
3|7.5.6 To Have the Right to Present a Habeas Corpus|127
3|7.5.7 Cells and Detention Conditions|127
3|7.5.8 A Single Report as a Guarantee|129
2|7.6 Conclusions|130
2|References|132
1|Chapter 8: Police Powers and Criminal Investigations|133
2|8.1 Introduction: The Police and Human Rights|133
2|8.2 The Duty to Intervene and to Investigate|135
2|8.3 The Duty to Act Only with Lawful Authority|140
2|8.4 The Duty to Act in a Proportionate Manner|145
2|8.5 The Duty to Act Fairly|152
2|8.6 Conclusions|159
2|Reference|160
2|Cases|160
1|Chapter 9: Surveillance Powers of the Police and the Protection of Personal Data|162
2|9.1 Surveillance and Privacy|163
3|9.1.1 Police and Security Services|164
3|9.1.2 The Right to Privacy|165
2|9.2 The Council of Europe|165
3|9.2.1 The European Court of Human Rights and Surveillance|165
4|9.2.1.1 The Zakharov Case|166
4|9.2.1.2 The Szabó Case|168
3|9.2.2 The Cybercrime Convention|169
4|9.2.2.1 Issues with the Cybercrime Convention|170
3|9.2.3 The Commissioner for Human Rights|172
4|9.2.3.1 The Role of the Commissioner for Human Rights|172
4|9.2.3.2 The Commissioner for Human Rights on Surveillance|173
2|9.3 The European Union|173
3|9.3.1 EU Law|173
3|9.3.2 Collection and Exchange of Data in the EU and Between the EU and Third States|175
4|9.3.2.1 The EU PNR Directive|175
4|9.3.2.2 The EU PNR Agreements with the USA and Canada|176
4|9.3.2.3 The EU Data Retention Directive|178
4|9.3.2.4 The Data Protection Reform|179
4|9.3.2.5 The SWIFT Agreement Between the EU and the USA|180
4|9.3.2.6 The Resolution and the Follow-Up Resolution of the European Parliament on Surveillance Programmes|181
2|9.4 German Law on Surveillance|182
2|9.5 The Fight Against Terrorism|183
3|9.5.1 The EU and the Fight Against Terrorism|183
3|9.5.2 The International Fight Against Terrorism|185
2|9.6 Approach of Differentiation|185
2|References|187
1|Chapter 10: The Protection Against Crime as a Human Right: Positive Obligations of the Police|188
2|10.1 Introduction|189
2|10.2 International/National Constitutional Review: Harmonising Police Duties|191
2|10.3 The General Scope of Constitutional Review of Police Duties: The Framework of Positive Obligations|194
2|10.4 Preliminary Positive Obligations of the State Conditioning Those of the Police|195
2|10.5 Crime in Human Rights Law: Human Rights x Locus Standi of the Individual|198
2|10.6 Determining Police Duties: How and When to Protect|201
2|10.7 Police Duties Before Harm Has Been Suffered: The Ex Ante Framework|203
3|10.7.1 Systemic Duties of the Police|204
3|10.7.2 When Does the Duty of Protection of the Specific Individual Arise?|205
3|10.7.3 Determining the Content of Police Duties: The Question of How to Protect|209
2|10.8 Police Duties Where Harm Has Already Been Suffered: The Ex Post Framework - Primary Focus on the Duty of Investigation|210
2|10.9 Limits to Police Duties|214
3|10.9.1 Conflicts of Rights|214
3|10.9.2 Limited Resources|217
2|10.10 Conclusion|218
2|References|221
1|Chapter 11: The Police and the Human Right to Peaceful Assembly|223
2|11.1 Introduction|224
2|11.2 Regulatory Framework for Police Activity: Selected Aspects|227
3|11.2.1 Peaceful Assembly|227
3|11.2.2 Positive Obligations to Ensure the Right to Peaceful Assembly|229
3|11.2.3 Possible Interferences with the Right to Peaceful Assembly|230
3|11.2.4 Justification of Interferences|232
3|11.2.5 Assemblies Without Prior Notification or Authorisation|234
3|11.2.6 Spontaneous Assemblies|235
3|11.2.7 Police Officials as Demonstrators|235
2|11.3 Good Practices in Policing Public Assemblies in Consistency with Human Rights Standards|236
3|11.3.1 Changing Police Approach to Public Assemblies in Light of Developing Case Law|236
3|11.3.2 Key Elements of Police Professionalism in Connection with Public Assemblies|237
4|11.3.2.1 Organisational Culture Based on Human Rights and Police Ethics|238
4|11.3.2.2 Police as Facilitator: Need for Flexibility|238
4|11.3.2.3 Continuous Communication with Organisers, Participants and the Wider Public as Means of Choice|239
4|11.3.2.4 Neutrality|241
4|11.3.2.5 Planning Procedures and Preparatory Measures: Centrality of Knowledge|241
4|11.3.2.6 Measures to Prevent the Outbreak of Violence|242
4|11.3.2.7 Differentiation: Targeted Intervention and Minimum Use of Force|242
4|11.3.2.8 Limitations to Police Discretion: Necessity and Proportionality|244
4|11.3.2.9 Transparency|245
4|11.3.2.10 Accountability|245
4|11.3.2.11 After the Event: De-briefing and Evaluation|246
4|11.3.2.12 Training|246
2|11.4 Conclusions and Outlook|246
2|References|248
1|Chapter 12: United Nations Police Missions and Human Rights|250
2|12.1 Introduction|251
2|12.2 Police in Terms of the United Nations?|253
2|12.3 Legal Framework|256
2|12.4 Levels of Human Rights Involvement in Peacekeeping|259
3|12.4.1 Law of the Host State|259
3|12.4.2 Law of the Police-Contributing States|260
4|12.4.2.1 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)|262
4|12.4.2.2 European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)|263
4|12.4.2.3 International Court of Justice (ICJ)|266
4|12.4.2.4 Conclusion|266
3|12.4.3 The United Nations|267
2|12.5 Human Rights Violations, Responsibility, and Immunity|269
3|12.5.1 Human Rights Violations by UN Police Members and Immunities of UN Police Personnel|269
3|12.5.2 Responsibility of the United Nations|273
2|12.6 Human Rights in `Policekeeping´ Practice|274
3|12.6.1 Protection of Civilians|274
3|12.6.2 Use of Force and Firearms|276
3|12.6.3 Arrest and Detention|278
2|12.7 Conclusions|279
2|References|280
1|Chapter 13: Police Training and International Human Rights Standards|284
2|13.1 Introduction|285
2|13.2 The Setting: Human Rights Training of Police|286
3|13.2.1 What Is Training and What Is Human Rights Training?|286
3|13.2.2 The International Legal Framework for Human Rights Training of Police|288
3|13.2.3 Integrating Human Rights in Police Training|292
3|13.2.4 Didactics:Principles of Effective Human Rights Trainings|294
3|13.2.5 Human Rights Training in the Broader Context of Police Organizations|296
2|13.3 Dimensions and Elements of Human Rights Training|298
3|13.3.1 Introduction: The Triangle of Human Rights Education|298
3|13.3.2 Knowledge and Understanding About Human Rights|300
4|13.3.2.1 Foundational Knowledge 1: Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Corresponding Obligations|300
4|13.3.2.2 Foundational Knowledge 2: The Double Role of Police with Regard to Human Rights|302
4|13.3.2.3 Specialized Knowledge: Human Rights Norms and Procedures|303
3|13.3.3 Skills and Human Rights|304
4|13.3.3.1 Operational Skills|304
4|13.3.3.2 Analytical and Reflection Skills|305
3|13.3.4 Attitude and Human Rights|306
2|13.4 Conclusions|307
2|References|308
1|Chapter 14: The European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Its Work with the Police|310
2|14.1 The CPT|311
2|14.2 Visiting a Police Station|313
3|14.2.1 Interrogation|314
3|14.2.2 Use of Force|316
3|14.2.3 The Example of Electrical Discharge Weapons (EDW), Taser|316
2|14.3 Impact of the Work of the CPT: Some Cautious Observations|317
3|14.3.1 Changes in Police, Remand and Foreign Immigration Establishments|318
3|14.3.2 Conference Reports and Academic Papers|320
2|14.4 Conclusions|321
2|References|323
1|Chapter 15: The Police and the Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture of the United Nations. National Preventive Mechanisms|325
2|15.1 Introduction|326
2|15.2 The Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (SPT) and Its Ins...|327
3|15.2.1 The Adoption of the Optional Protocol to the Convention Against Torture (OPCAT) and Its Application in Macedonia|327
3|15.2.2 The SPT´s State Visits|328
3|15.2.3 The Application of the SPT´s Visit Report´s Recommendations on a National Level|329
3|15.2.4 The Adaptation of a Standard Operational Procedure (SOP) in Macedonia|330
2|15.3 Macedonia´s Progress Toward Full Respect of Human Rights|330
3|15.3.1 Police Powers and Their Usage in Actual Police Work|331
3|15.3.2 Oversight of Police Powers in Macedonia|333
2|15.4 Conclusions|334