File #2666: "2019_Book_InternationalHumanRightsLawAnd.pdf"
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1|Preface and Acknowledgments|6
1|Contents|8
1|Abbreviations and Acronyms|16
1|Chapter 1: Introduction|18
2|A. Background of the Research and Subject Matter|18
2|B. Research Questions and Roadmap|23
2|C. On the Sources of Law Used and the Approach Taken|25
1|Part I: Analytical Scope and International Legal Framework|27
2|Chapter 2: Basic Terms and Concepts|28
3|A. International Definitions of `Gender-Based Violence´ and `Sexual(ized) Violence´|29
4|I. Violence Against Women as `Gender-Based Violence´|29
5|1. International Definitions|30
5|2. Scenarios of Violence Against Women|30
4|II. Non-conflict and Conflict-Related Sexual(ized) Violence Against Women and Men|31
5|1. Sexualized Violence Under the WHO|32
5|2. Conflict-Related Sexualized Violence|32
4|III. Conclusion: Gender-Based and Sexualized Violence|34
3|B. Causes of Violence Against Women|34
4|I. Individual Reasons|35
4|II. Political Goals in Conflict Settings|35
4|III. Societal Factors|36
4|IV. Hierarchies-Gender Stereotypes-Discrimination-Violence: A Continuum|37
5|1. Gender Injustice in a Nutshell: The Iceberg-Model Through a Life Course Perspective|38
5|2. Ground-Level of the Iceberg: Hierarchization and Stereotypes|39
5|3. Second Layer of the Iceberg: Discrimination in All Fields of Life|41
6|a. Childhood|41
6|b. Adolescence and Youth|43
6|c. Adulthood|45
6|d. Senior Years +65|47
5|4. Third Layer and Tip of the Iceberg: Gender-Based Violence|48
4|V. Conclusion: Need for a Transformative Approach to Violence Against Women|48
3|C. Violence Against Women as Discrimination: International Legal Approaches and Their Shortcomings|50
4|I. Concepts of Discrimination and Equality|51
5|1. Concepts of Discrimination|51
6|a. Legal Concepts: Direct and Indirect Discrimination|51
6|b. Structural Discrimination: Contextualized Perspective for Effective Anti-discrimination Policies|52
5|2. Concepts of Equality|54
6|a. Legal Concepts: Formal and Substantive Equality|54
6|b. Transformative Equality: Adding a Forward Looking Element|55
4|II. Approaches to Equality and Non-discrimination Under CEDAW|56
5|1. Definition of Discrimination Under Article 1 CEDAW|56
5|2. Authoritative Interpretation of Article 1: General Recommendation No. 25|57
4|III. Conclusion|58
2|Chapter 3: The Legal Frameworks Applicable to Violence Against Women|60
3|A. Humanitarian Rules Applicable in Armed Conflicts: Addressing the Tip of the Iceberg|61
4|I. Early Developments|61
4|II. Today´s Humanitarian Rules|62
5|1. Protection During International Armed Conflicts|62
6|a. The Geneva Convention IV|63
7|1) Articles 27 and 32 GC IV|63
7|2) Positive Obligations Under the Grave Breaches Regime|64
7|3) Scope of Application|66
6|b. The Prisoner of War Convention (POW/GC III) of 1949|67
6|c. Extending the Group of Protected Persons: Additional Protocol I of 1977|67
7|1) Articles 75 AP I|67
7|2) Articles 76 AP I|69
7|3) No Supplementary Protection Under the Grave Breaches Regime|69
5|2. Protection During Non-international Armed Conflicts|70
6|a. Treaty Law|70
6|b. Customary Law|71
4|III. Conclusion|72
3|B. Human Rights Treaties Applicable in Peacetime and Armed Conflicts|72
4|I. Applicability of Human Rights Treaties|72
5|1. Extraterritorial Application of Human Rights Obligations|72
6|a. Territorial or Personal Control as a Precondition for Extraterritorial Application|73
6|b. Extraterritorial Application of Positive Obligations|74
6|c. Positive Obligations Having an Extraterritorial Effect|74
6|d. Conclusion: Extraterritorial Application and Effects of Positive Obligations|76
5|2. Personal Scope of Application or Attribution|76
5|3. Particular Problems with Regard to Gender-Based Violence in Wartime: Temporal and Material Scope of Application|79
6|a. Temporal Restriction or Permanent Applicability|80
6|b. Material Scope: Normative Conflicts|82
7|1) Coexisting Norms: Applying HRL and IHL During Armed Conflicts|82
8|a) Formal Requirements for a Derogation of Human Rights Obligations|83
8|b) Non-derogable Rights|83
8|c) The Principal Rules of Normative Conflict|83
7|2) The Relationship Between IHL and IHR Provisions Protecting Against Conflict-Related Sexualized Violence|85
8|a) Conflict-Related Sexualized Violence Covered by the Grave Breaches Regimes|85
8|b) Conflict-Related Sexualized Violence Not Being Covered by the Grave Breaches Regimes|87
6|c. Conclusion|88
4|II. Human Rights (Instruments) Protecting Against Gender-Based Violence|89
5|1. Specific Instruments and Conventions Explicitly Addressing Violence Against Women|89
6|a. Universal Instruments and Soft Law Documents|89
7|1) CEDAW|89
7|2) Soft Law Instruments|90
8|a) CEDAW Committee: General Recommendation No. 19|91
8|b) UNGA Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women|92
8|c) Women, Peace and Security Agenda of the UNSC|92
6|b. Regional Human Rights Instruments|94
7|1) Organization of American States: 1994 Belém do Par Convention|94
7|2) African Union: 2003 Maputo Protocol and Subsequent Instruments|96
7|3) Council of Europe: 2011 Istanbul Convention|97
5|2. General Treaties Guaranteeing Rights That Are Impaired or Nullified by Gender-Based Violence|100
6|a. Rights of Freedom Potentially Violated When Gender-Based Violence Occurs|100
6|b. Rights to Non-discrimination|101
3|C. Conclusion: Legal Framework Applicable to Violence Against Women|103
1|Part II: State Responsibility for Violence Against Women: Transformative Potential of Primary and Secondary Human Rights Oblig...|105
2|Chapter 4: Primary Obligations: Positive Human Rights Obligations in Context|106
3|A. Normative Basis|107
4|I. Thematic Human Rights Treaties|108
4|II. General Human Rights Treaties|109
5|1. ACHR|109
5|2. ECHR|110
5|3. ICCPR|111
3|B. Nature and Content of Positive Obligations|112
4|I. Measures Potentially Complying with Positive Obligations and the Right to an Effective Remedy|112
4|II. Different Kinds of Positive Obligations|115
5|1. Positive Obligations as Regards Third Actors: Obligation to Protect|115
5|2. Positive Obligations as Regards the State Itself|116
5|3. Obligation to Fulfill Human Rights|116
5|4. Violence Against Women and the `Due Diligence Standard´|117
3|C. Conclusion: Basic Assumption and Terminology|118
2|Chapter 5: Parameters to Establish the Existence and Extent of Positive Obligations|119
3|A. Parameters to Establish Whether Protective and Preventive Duties Apply|121
4|I. Danger of Harm and Knowledge About It|121
5|1. Level of Danger Required for Positive Obligations to Arise in a Particular Case|122
5|2. Level of Danger Required for Obligations to Provide for a Legal and Administrative Framework|124
4|II. State Capacity to Influence Effectively the Situation Impairing the Exercise of Human Rights|125
5|1. De jure Relationship with the Abuser|126
5|2. De facto Relationship with the Circumstances, the Abuser or the Victim|126
6|a. `Supervisor Guarantor´ Position|127
6|b. `Protector Guarantor´|128
4|III. Severity of Harm and `Vulnerability of Victims´ Group´|129
5|1. Severity of Harm|130
5|2. Vulnerability as a Distinct Reason for Protection: A Critical Evaluation|131
6|a. Philosophical Concepts of Vulnerability|132
6|b. Severity of Harm as Unifying Criterion|133
6|c. Conclusion: Irrelevance of the `Vulnerability´ Criterion|135
4|IV. Conclusion|135
5|1. Parameters to Establish the Existence of Positive Obligations of Protection and Prevention|135
5|2. Parameters Applied to Violence Against Women|136
3|B. Scope of and Limits to Positive Obligations|138
4|I. Scope of Positive Obligations|138
5|1. Concept of `Due Diligence´ Under General International Law|140
5|2. Standard Applied by International Courts and (Quasi-)Judicial Bodies|140
6|a. IACtHR|141
6|b. ECtHR|141
6|c. CEDAW Committee|143
6|d. ICJ|143
5|3. Conclusion|144
4|II. Factors Informing and Limits to a State´s Discretion|145
5|1. Factors That Inform a State´s Discretion|146
6|a. Rights of Others|146
6|b. Interests of a State and the Community|147
6|c. Relationship of a State with the Abuser/Situation|147
6|d. Scale and Intensity of Harm|147
6|e. Compatibility of Measures with Other Obligations Under International Law|149
6|f. Financial Restrictions|149
5|2. Limits to a State´s Discretion: Fair-Balance Test|150
4|III. Conclusion|151
3|C. Factors Potentially Required to Establish a Violation of Preventive and Protective Obligations|152
4|I. Occurrence of the Event Which the State Was Required to Prevent|152
4|II. Relevance of Causality Between the Impairment of Rights and a State´s Omission|153
4|III. Conclusion|155
2|Chapter 6: Measures Against Gender-Based Violence|156
3|A. Measures Against Gender-Based Violence as Foreseen Under CEDAW, the Istanbul and the Belém do Par Conventions|157
4|I. Short-Term Measures: Directly Addressing Gender-Based Violence|157
5|1. State Level|157
6|a. Legislative Measures: Substantive and Procedural Provisions|158
7|1) Procedural Provisions|158
7|2) Substantive Provisions|159
7|3) Reparation Measures and Remedies|160
8|a) Belém do Par Convention|160
8|b) Istanbul Convention|161
9|(1) Reparation Made by the Perpetrator|161
9|(2) Reparation Provisions for State Failure|162
9|(3) Subsidiary State Compensation Schemes|163
8|c) Comparing Reparations Provisions Under the Belém do Par and Istanbul Conventions|164
6|b. Administrative and Judicial Measures|165
7|1) Gender-Sensitive Investigation, Prosecution, Punishment|165
7|2) Support Services for (Potential) Victims|166
5|2. Addressing the Public|167
5|3. Addressing the Individual|167
5|4. Interstate Cooperation|168
5|5. Conclusion|168
4|II. Long-Term Prevention: Towards Transformation|169
5|1. Combating de jure and de facto Discrimination Against Women by Public and Private Actors|170
5|2. Improving the Position of Women by Special Measures|172
5|3. Addressing Harmful Gender Stereotypes and Hierarchies|173
5|4. Conclusion: Towards Transformation|175
4|III. Conclusion|175
3|B. Content of Positive Obligations Under Customary International Law|176
2|Chapter 7: Secondary Obligations: Individual Reparation and Beyond|179
3|A. Notion of Reparation|181
4|I. Notion of `Reparation´ in Human Rights Law|181
4|II. International Plea for Transformative Reparation|182
3|B. Status of Victim|185
4|I. Definition of Victim in International Soft Law|186
4|II. Regional Concepts of Victim|187
5|1. Concept of Victim According to the ECtHR|187
6|a. Direct and Indirect Victims|187
7|1) Heirs as Indirect Victims|189
7|2) Close Family Members as Victims in Their Own Rights|189
6|b. Harm, Causality and Standard of Proof|190
5|2. Concept of Victim According to the IACtHR|191
6|a. Direct and Indirect Victims Before the IACtHR|192
6|b. Harm, Causality and Standard of Proof|194
5|3. Conclusion|195
6|a. Direct and Indirect Victims|195
6|b. Approaches Taken Regarding Harm, Causality and Standard of Proof|196
3|C. Practice of the IACtHR and the ECtHR: Individual Reparation and Beyond|196
4|I. Practice of the IACtHR Under Article 63 (1) ACHR|197
5|1. A Broad Definition of Reparation|197
5|2. Transformative Potential of Non-monetary Measures Ordered in Gender-Based Violence Cases|198
6|a. Satisfaction: Recognizing the Wrong Done by Gender-Based Violence|198
6|b. Guarantees of Non-repetition|199
4|II. Practice Within the European Human Rights System: Individual Compensation and Beyond|202
5|1. Limited Competence Under Article 41 ECHR|202
5|2. The Practice Under Article 46 ECHR|203
6|a. Supervision of the Execution and Implementation of Judgments by the Committee of Ministers|204
6|b. Practice of the Court to Indicate Measures and to Initiate Pilot Judgment Procedures|206
4|III. Comparing the Approaches of the IACtHR and the ECtHR|207
5|1. Differences Regarding Their Theoretical and Procedural Approaches|207
5|2. Content of Guarantees of Non-repetition|209
5|3. Transformative Potential on Structurally Discriminatory Settings|210
3|D. Conclusion|211
2|Chapter 8: Findings|213
3|A. Thematic Human Rights Conventions Address Violence Against Women and Structural Discrimination|214
3|B. Addressing Structural Discrimination Under General Human Rights Treaties|215
4|I. Primary Obligations|216
5|1. Conditions for Positive Obligations of Protection and Prevention to Apply|216
5|2. Scope of Positive Obligations|217
5|3. Factors Impeding the Finding of a Violation of Positive Obligations|217
4|II. Secondary Obligations and Beyond: An Individual Complaint Concerning Gender-Based Violence Brought Before the ECtHR or the...|218
5|1. Legal Framework and Practice|218
5|2. Comparing the Transformative Potential of Guarantees of Non-Repetition|219
5|3. Transformative Reparation: A Theoretically Flawed Concept|219
1|A. Table of Cases, Documents and Reports|221
2|I. International and Regional Jurisprudence|221
3|1. International Jurisprudence|221
4|a. Permanent Court of International Justice|221
4|b. International Court of Justice|221
4|c. International Criminal Court|222
4|d. International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia|222
4|e. Human Rights Committee|222
4|f. CEDAW Committee|223
4|g. International Arbitration|223
3|2. Regional Jurisprudence|223
4|a. Inter-American Commission of Human Rights|223
4|b. Inter-American Court of Human Rights|223
4|c. European Court of Human Rights|225
4|d. European Court of Justice|227
2|II. International and Regional Documents|227
3|1. International Documents|227
4|a. UN General Assembly|227
4|b. UN Security Council|227
4|c. UN Secretary General|228
4|d. World Health Organization|228
4|e. UN Women|228
4|f. International Law Commission|229
4|g. Human Rights Committee|229
4|h. CAT|229
4|i. CEDAW|230
4|j. CERD|231
4|k. CESC|231
4|l. Reports of Special Rapporteurs|231
4|m. Other UN Documents and Reports|232
3|2. Regional Documents|233
4|a. Council of Europe|233
4|b. Organization of American States|233
3|3. Other Documents and Reports|234
1|Bibliography|235
1|Contents|8
1|Abbreviations and Acronyms|16
1|Chapter 1: Introduction|18
2|A. Background of the Research and Subject Matter|18
2|B. Research Questions and Roadmap|23
2|C. On the Sources of Law Used and the Approach Taken|25
1|Part I: Analytical Scope and International Legal Framework|27
2|Chapter 2: Basic Terms and Concepts|28
3|A. International Definitions of `Gender-Based Violence´ and `Sexual(ized) Violence´|29
4|I. Violence Against Women as `Gender-Based Violence´|29
5|1. International Definitions|30
5|2. Scenarios of Violence Against Women|30
4|II. Non-conflict and Conflict-Related Sexual(ized) Violence Against Women and Men|31
5|1. Sexualized Violence Under the WHO|32
5|2. Conflict-Related Sexualized Violence|32
4|III. Conclusion: Gender-Based and Sexualized Violence|34
3|B. Causes of Violence Against Women|34
4|I. Individual Reasons|35
4|II. Political Goals in Conflict Settings|35
4|III. Societal Factors|36
4|IV. Hierarchies-Gender Stereotypes-Discrimination-Violence: A Continuum|37
5|1. Gender Injustice in a Nutshell: The Iceberg-Model Through a Life Course Perspective|38
5|2. Ground-Level of the Iceberg: Hierarchization and Stereotypes|39
5|3. Second Layer of the Iceberg: Discrimination in All Fields of Life|41
6|a. Childhood|41
6|b. Adolescence and Youth|43
6|c. Adulthood|45
6|d. Senior Years +65|47
5|4. Third Layer and Tip of the Iceberg: Gender-Based Violence|48
4|V. Conclusion: Need for a Transformative Approach to Violence Against Women|48
3|C. Violence Against Women as Discrimination: International Legal Approaches and Their Shortcomings|50
4|I. Concepts of Discrimination and Equality|51
5|1. Concepts of Discrimination|51
6|a. Legal Concepts: Direct and Indirect Discrimination|51
6|b. Structural Discrimination: Contextualized Perspective for Effective Anti-discrimination Policies|52
5|2. Concepts of Equality|54
6|a. Legal Concepts: Formal and Substantive Equality|54
6|b. Transformative Equality: Adding a Forward Looking Element|55
4|II. Approaches to Equality and Non-discrimination Under CEDAW|56
5|1. Definition of Discrimination Under Article 1 CEDAW|56
5|2. Authoritative Interpretation of Article 1: General Recommendation No. 25|57
4|III. Conclusion|58
2|Chapter 3: The Legal Frameworks Applicable to Violence Against Women|60
3|A. Humanitarian Rules Applicable in Armed Conflicts: Addressing the Tip of the Iceberg|61
4|I. Early Developments|61
4|II. Today´s Humanitarian Rules|62
5|1. Protection During International Armed Conflicts|62
6|a. The Geneva Convention IV|63
7|1) Articles 27 and 32 GC IV|63
7|2) Positive Obligations Under the Grave Breaches Regime|64
7|3) Scope of Application|66
6|b. The Prisoner of War Convention (POW/GC III) of 1949|67
6|c. Extending the Group of Protected Persons: Additional Protocol I of 1977|67
7|1) Articles 75 AP I|67
7|2) Articles 76 AP I|69
7|3) No Supplementary Protection Under the Grave Breaches Regime|69
5|2. Protection During Non-international Armed Conflicts|70
6|a. Treaty Law|70
6|b. Customary Law|71
4|III. Conclusion|72
3|B. Human Rights Treaties Applicable in Peacetime and Armed Conflicts|72
4|I. Applicability of Human Rights Treaties|72
5|1. Extraterritorial Application of Human Rights Obligations|72
6|a. Territorial or Personal Control as a Precondition for Extraterritorial Application|73
6|b. Extraterritorial Application of Positive Obligations|74
6|c. Positive Obligations Having an Extraterritorial Effect|74
6|d. Conclusion: Extraterritorial Application and Effects of Positive Obligations|76
5|2. Personal Scope of Application or Attribution|76
5|3. Particular Problems with Regard to Gender-Based Violence in Wartime: Temporal and Material Scope of Application|79
6|a. Temporal Restriction or Permanent Applicability|80
6|b. Material Scope: Normative Conflicts|82
7|1) Coexisting Norms: Applying HRL and IHL During Armed Conflicts|82
8|a) Formal Requirements for a Derogation of Human Rights Obligations|83
8|b) Non-derogable Rights|83
8|c) The Principal Rules of Normative Conflict|83
7|2) The Relationship Between IHL and IHR Provisions Protecting Against Conflict-Related Sexualized Violence|85
8|a) Conflict-Related Sexualized Violence Covered by the Grave Breaches Regimes|85
8|b) Conflict-Related Sexualized Violence Not Being Covered by the Grave Breaches Regimes|87
6|c. Conclusion|88
4|II. Human Rights (Instruments) Protecting Against Gender-Based Violence|89
5|1. Specific Instruments and Conventions Explicitly Addressing Violence Against Women|89
6|a. Universal Instruments and Soft Law Documents|89
7|1) CEDAW|89
7|2) Soft Law Instruments|90
8|a) CEDAW Committee: General Recommendation No. 19|91
8|b) UNGA Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women|92
8|c) Women, Peace and Security Agenda of the UNSC|92
6|b. Regional Human Rights Instruments|94
7|1) Organization of American States: 1994 Belém do Par Convention|94
7|2) African Union: 2003 Maputo Protocol and Subsequent Instruments|96
7|3) Council of Europe: 2011 Istanbul Convention|97
5|2. General Treaties Guaranteeing Rights That Are Impaired or Nullified by Gender-Based Violence|100
6|a. Rights of Freedom Potentially Violated When Gender-Based Violence Occurs|100
6|b. Rights to Non-discrimination|101
3|C. Conclusion: Legal Framework Applicable to Violence Against Women|103
1|Part II: State Responsibility for Violence Against Women: Transformative Potential of Primary and Secondary Human Rights Oblig...|105
2|Chapter 4: Primary Obligations: Positive Human Rights Obligations in Context|106
3|A. Normative Basis|107
4|I. Thematic Human Rights Treaties|108
4|II. General Human Rights Treaties|109
5|1. ACHR|109
5|2. ECHR|110
5|3. ICCPR|111
3|B. Nature and Content of Positive Obligations|112
4|I. Measures Potentially Complying with Positive Obligations and the Right to an Effective Remedy|112
4|II. Different Kinds of Positive Obligations|115
5|1. Positive Obligations as Regards Third Actors: Obligation to Protect|115
5|2. Positive Obligations as Regards the State Itself|116
5|3. Obligation to Fulfill Human Rights|116
5|4. Violence Against Women and the `Due Diligence Standard´|117
3|C. Conclusion: Basic Assumption and Terminology|118
2|Chapter 5: Parameters to Establish the Existence and Extent of Positive Obligations|119
3|A. Parameters to Establish Whether Protective and Preventive Duties Apply|121
4|I. Danger of Harm and Knowledge About It|121
5|1. Level of Danger Required for Positive Obligations to Arise in a Particular Case|122
5|2. Level of Danger Required for Obligations to Provide for a Legal and Administrative Framework|124
4|II. State Capacity to Influence Effectively the Situation Impairing the Exercise of Human Rights|125
5|1. De jure Relationship with the Abuser|126
5|2. De facto Relationship with the Circumstances, the Abuser or the Victim|126
6|a. `Supervisor Guarantor´ Position|127
6|b. `Protector Guarantor´|128
4|III. Severity of Harm and `Vulnerability of Victims´ Group´|129
5|1. Severity of Harm|130
5|2. Vulnerability as a Distinct Reason for Protection: A Critical Evaluation|131
6|a. Philosophical Concepts of Vulnerability|132
6|b. Severity of Harm as Unifying Criterion|133
6|c. Conclusion: Irrelevance of the `Vulnerability´ Criterion|135
4|IV. Conclusion|135
5|1. Parameters to Establish the Existence of Positive Obligations of Protection and Prevention|135
5|2. Parameters Applied to Violence Against Women|136
3|B. Scope of and Limits to Positive Obligations|138
4|I. Scope of Positive Obligations|138
5|1. Concept of `Due Diligence´ Under General International Law|140
5|2. Standard Applied by International Courts and (Quasi-)Judicial Bodies|140
6|a. IACtHR|141
6|b. ECtHR|141
6|c. CEDAW Committee|143
6|d. ICJ|143
5|3. Conclusion|144
4|II. Factors Informing and Limits to a State´s Discretion|145
5|1. Factors That Inform a State´s Discretion|146
6|a. Rights of Others|146
6|b. Interests of a State and the Community|147
6|c. Relationship of a State with the Abuser/Situation|147
6|d. Scale and Intensity of Harm|147
6|e. Compatibility of Measures with Other Obligations Under International Law|149
6|f. Financial Restrictions|149
5|2. Limits to a State´s Discretion: Fair-Balance Test|150
4|III. Conclusion|151
3|C. Factors Potentially Required to Establish a Violation of Preventive and Protective Obligations|152
4|I. Occurrence of the Event Which the State Was Required to Prevent|152
4|II. Relevance of Causality Between the Impairment of Rights and a State´s Omission|153
4|III. Conclusion|155
2|Chapter 6: Measures Against Gender-Based Violence|156
3|A. Measures Against Gender-Based Violence as Foreseen Under CEDAW, the Istanbul and the Belém do Par Conventions|157
4|I. Short-Term Measures: Directly Addressing Gender-Based Violence|157
5|1. State Level|157
6|a. Legislative Measures: Substantive and Procedural Provisions|158
7|1) Procedural Provisions|158
7|2) Substantive Provisions|159
7|3) Reparation Measures and Remedies|160
8|a) Belém do Par Convention|160
8|b) Istanbul Convention|161
9|(1) Reparation Made by the Perpetrator|161
9|(2) Reparation Provisions for State Failure|162
9|(3) Subsidiary State Compensation Schemes|163
8|c) Comparing Reparations Provisions Under the Belém do Par and Istanbul Conventions|164
6|b. Administrative and Judicial Measures|165
7|1) Gender-Sensitive Investigation, Prosecution, Punishment|165
7|2) Support Services for (Potential) Victims|166
5|2. Addressing the Public|167
5|3. Addressing the Individual|167
5|4. Interstate Cooperation|168
5|5. Conclusion|168
4|II. Long-Term Prevention: Towards Transformation|169
5|1. Combating de jure and de facto Discrimination Against Women by Public and Private Actors|170
5|2. Improving the Position of Women by Special Measures|172
5|3. Addressing Harmful Gender Stereotypes and Hierarchies|173
5|4. Conclusion: Towards Transformation|175
4|III. Conclusion|175
3|B. Content of Positive Obligations Under Customary International Law|176
2|Chapter 7: Secondary Obligations: Individual Reparation and Beyond|179
3|A. Notion of Reparation|181
4|I. Notion of `Reparation´ in Human Rights Law|181
4|II. International Plea for Transformative Reparation|182
3|B. Status of Victim|185
4|I. Definition of Victim in International Soft Law|186
4|II. Regional Concepts of Victim|187
5|1. Concept of Victim According to the ECtHR|187
6|a. Direct and Indirect Victims|187
7|1) Heirs as Indirect Victims|189
7|2) Close Family Members as Victims in Their Own Rights|189
6|b. Harm, Causality and Standard of Proof|190
5|2. Concept of Victim According to the IACtHR|191
6|a. Direct and Indirect Victims Before the IACtHR|192
6|b. Harm, Causality and Standard of Proof|194
5|3. Conclusion|195
6|a. Direct and Indirect Victims|195
6|b. Approaches Taken Regarding Harm, Causality and Standard of Proof|196
3|C. Practice of the IACtHR and the ECtHR: Individual Reparation and Beyond|196
4|I. Practice of the IACtHR Under Article 63 (1) ACHR|197
5|1. A Broad Definition of Reparation|197
5|2. Transformative Potential of Non-monetary Measures Ordered in Gender-Based Violence Cases|198
6|a. Satisfaction: Recognizing the Wrong Done by Gender-Based Violence|198
6|b. Guarantees of Non-repetition|199
4|II. Practice Within the European Human Rights System: Individual Compensation and Beyond|202
5|1. Limited Competence Under Article 41 ECHR|202
5|2. The Practice Under Article 46 ECHR|203
6|a. Supervision of the Execution and Implementation of Judgments by the Committee of Ministers|204
6|b. Practice of the Court to Indicate Measures and to Initiate Pilot Judgment Procedures|206
4|III. Comparing the Approaches of the IACtHR and the ECtHR|207
5|1. Differences Regarding Their Theoretical and Procedural Approaches|207
5|2. Content of Guarantees of Non-repetition|209
5|3. Transformative Potential on Structurally Discriminatory Settings|210
3|D. Conclusion|211
2|Chapter 8: Findings|213
3|A. Thematic Human Rights Conventions Address Violence Against Women and Structural Discrimination|214
3|B. Addressing Structural Discrimination Under General Human Rights Treaties|215
4|I. Primary Obligations|216
5|1. Conditions for Positive Obligations of Protection and Prevention to Apply|216
5|2. Scope of Positive Obligations|217
5|3. Factors Impeding the Finding of a Violation of Positive Obligations|217
4|II. Secondary Obligations and Beyond: An Individual Complaint Concerning Gender-Based Violence Brought Before the ECtHR or the...|218
5|1. Legal Framework and Practice|218
5|2. Comparing the Transformative Potential of Guarantees of Non-Repetition|219
5|3. Transformative Reparation: A Theoretically Flawed Concept|219
1|A. Table of Cases, Documents and Reports|221
2|I. International and Regional Jurisprudence|221
3|1. International Jurisprudence|221
4|a. Permanent Court of International Justice|221
4|b. International Court of Justice|221
4|c. International Criminal Court|222
4|d. International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia|222
4|e. Human Rights Committee|222
4|f. CEDAW Committee|223
4|g. International Arbitration|223
3|2. Regional Jurisprudence|223
4|a. Inter-American Commission of Human Rights|223
4|b. Inter-American Court of Human Rights|223
4|c. European Court of Human Rights|225
4|d. European Court of Justice|227
2|II. International and Regional Documents|227
3|1. International Documents|227
4|a. UN General Assembly|227
4|b. UN Security Council|227
4|c. UN Secretary General|228
4|d. World Health Organization|228
4|e. UN Women|228
4|f. International Law Commission|229
4|g. Human Rights Committee|229
4|h. CAT|229
4|i. CEDAW|230
4|j. CERD|231
4|k. CESC|231
4|l. Reports of Special Rapporteurs|231
4|m. Other UN Documents and Reports|232
3|2. Regional Documents|233
4|a. Council of Europe|233
4|b. Organization of American States|233
3|3. Other Documents and Reports|234
1|Bibliography|235