File #2671: "2019_Book_InnovationEconomicDevelopmentA.pdf"
Text
1|Contents|6
1|About the Authors|9
1|Introduction, Summary, and Some Inferences|18
2|1 Background|19
2|2 Methodology|21
2|3 Summary of the Findings of the Seven Study Groups|21
3|3.1 IP Codification and Innovation Governance|21
3|3.2 IT Industry|22
4|3.2.1 Current Status|22
4|3.2.2 Major Findings|25
3|3.3 Film Industry|26
4|3.3.1 Current Status|26
3|3.4 Pharmaceutical Industry|29
4|3.4.1 Current Status|29
3|3.5 Plant Varieties and Food Security|32
4|3.5.1 Current Status|32
3|3.6 Automobile Industry|33
4|3.6.1 Current Status|34
3|3.7 The Culture of Sharing and the Sharing Economy|37
3|3.8 Current Status|37
1|Part I: IP Codification and Innovation Governance|40
2|On the necessity of incorporating IP Laws into the Civil Law of China and How|41
3|1 Introduction|41
3|2 The Establishment of IP Rights Has Revolutionized Property|42
3|3 Doctrinal and Practical Value of Codifying IP Laws into the Civil Law|44
4|3.1 The Civil Law Principally Guides IP Laws|44
4|3.2 Feedback from IP Theories and Systems to the Civil Law|47
3|4 Choice of Models for the Fusion Between IP Laws and the Civil Law|48
3|5 Relationship Between IP Laws, the General Provisions of the Civil Law and Its Respective Chapters|50
3|6 Technical Issues for Fusing IP Laws into the Civil Law|51
3|7 IP Laws and the Rule of Law in China|53
2|Constitutional Governance in India and China and Its Impact on National Innovation|54
3|1 Introduction|54
3|2 Brief Introduction to the National Innovation System|56
3|3 Different Political Philosophy for Social Revolution and Social Justice|58
4|3.1 Social Revolution: Violent Revolution vs. Democratic Governance|58
4|3.2 Pursuing Social Justice: Transcendental Institutionalism vs. Realization-Focused Comparison|61
3|4 Power Distribution: Government Accountability vs. Policy Innovation|63
4|4.1 Vertical Power Distribution: Accountability vs. Local Innovation|63
4|4.2 Horizontal Power Distribution: Accountability vs. Policy Innovation|67
4|4.3 Constitutional Enforcement: Citizens’ Rights vs. State Power|69
3|5 The Impact of Constitutional Governance on Economic Development Path and Innovation Strategy|72
4|5.1 Impact on Economic Development Path|72
4|5.2 Case Study on ICT of the Impact on Innovation Strategy|75
3|6 Conclusion|78
3|References|79
1|Part II: IT Industry|83
2|Information Technology Industry in China|84
3|1 Introduction|85
3|2 Economic Development Patterns and Characteristics in General|85
4|2.1 Development Patterns|85
4|2.2 Economic Development Characteristics|86
4|2.3 Identifying and Explaining Similarities and Differences|86
3|3 IT Industries: Two Kinds of Technical and Business Sectors|89
3|4 Comparing the Two Countries|91
4|4.1 Government Policies on IT Industries|94
5|4.1.1 China|94
5|4.1.2 India|95
4|4.2 Comparative Advantages of Chinese IT Companies|96
4|4.3 Comparative Advantages of Indian IT Companies|98
5|4.3.1 Strengths|98
5|4.3.2 Reasons Attributed to Stronger Competitiveness|99
5|4.3.3 Challenges|101
3|5 IP Factors in China and India|102
4|5.1 National-Level Patent Strategies|102
4|5.2 Firm-Level IP Strategies|102
3|6 Conclusion|103
3|References|103
2|India’s Information Technology Industry: A Tale of Two Halves|106
3|1 Introduction|107
3|2 The Computer Electronics Industry in India|108
4|2.1 Triggering the Development of the Industry|108
4|2.2 Facilitating the Growth of the Electronics Industry in the 1980s|109
4|2.3 Technology Imports and Domestic R&D Behaviour|111
5|2.3.1 Domestic R&D Behaviour: C-DAC and Param Supercomputer|111
4|2.4 Electronics Industry in the Period of Economic Reforms|112
4|2.5 Manufacturing|113
4|2.6 Strategic Role of Standards|114
3|3 India’s Information Technology-Enabled Services|116
4|3.1 Evolution of the ITES Industry in India|116
4|3.2 The Beginnings of a Global ITES Hub|117
4|3.3 Consolidation of the Industry Since the Mid-1980s|117
4|3.4 Software Technology Parks and IT Clusters|118
4|3.5 India as an ITES Leader in the New Millennium|119
4|3.6 Current Status|119
4|3.7 R&D, Innovation and Intellectual Property Rights|120
3|4 Patentability of Computer-Related Inventions in India|121
4|4.1 Yardsticks Followed by the CG Office to Deal with Section 3(k)|122
5|4.1.1 The 2013 Guidelines|122
5|4.1.2 The 2015 Guidelines|123
5|4.1.3 The 2017 Guidelines|124
4|4.2 Court Decisions on Patenting of Computer Programmes|125
3|5 By Way of Conclusions|128
3|References|129
1|Part III: Film Industry|131
2|Chinese Film Industry Under the Lens of Copyright, Policy, and Market|132
3|1 Early Cinema (1896–1930)|132
3|2 Wartime Cinema (1930–1949)|135
3|3 Socialist Cinema (1949–1978)|137
4|3.1 State-Owned and Policy-Controlled Cinema|137
4|3.2 Film Copyright Remained Unattended|138
3|4 Contemporary Cinema (1979–Present)|139
4|4.1 Recovery Period of Internal Reform|139
4|4.2 Cinema Marketization|142
5|4.2.1 The 1990 Copyright Law Set Up Basic Copyright Framework for the Film Industry|142
5|4.2.2 Further Reform in Film Distribution, Import, and Production|144
5|4.2.3 A Comprehensive Prior Approval System for Films|145
4|4.3 Industrialization|146
5|4.3.1 Further Liberalization of Import and Distribution of Foreign Films|146
5|4.3.2 Nationwide Cinema Chains|146
5|4.3.3 Further Liberalization of Film Production|147
5|4.3.4 Internet Giants Are Swarming into the Film Industry|149
5|4.3.5 Film Copyright|149
3|5 Challenges Ahead|150
3|References|152
2|Reminiscing About the Golden Age: An Analysis of Efforts to Revive the Hong Kong Film Industry Through the Lens of Copyright Protection|155
3|1 Introduction|156
3|2 Hong Kong Film Industry: Growth and Decline|156
4|2.1 Factors Within the Core Model of the Hong Kong Film Industry|160
4|2.2 External Factors|161
3|3 The Road to Revival of the Hong Kong Film Industry|165
4|3.1 Hong Kong Film Development Council|165
4|3.2 Hong Kong International Film and TV Market and Hong Kong International Film Festival|166
4|3.3 Film Development Fund|166
4|3.4 Create Hong Kong (CreateHK) and Hong Kong Arts Development Council|167
4|3.5 Closer Economic Partnership Agreement|167
3|4 The Implications of the Hong Kong Copyright Framework on the Film Revival|168
4|4.1 Co-authorship of Films|169
4|4.2 Unclear Scope of “Copy” and Insufficient Protection for Secondary Creation|172
4|4.3 Criminal Liability for Copyright Infringement|175
3|5 Conclusion|178
3|References|179
4|Codes and Statutes|179
4|Jurisprudence|179
4|Books|180
4|Journal Articles|180
4|Official Reports|180
4|Newspapers & Websites|181
2|Contemporary Challenges of Online Copyright Enforcement in India|183
3|1 Introduction|184
3|2 The Piracy Landscape in India|187
3|3 Targeting End-Users: A Graduated Response Proposal|190
3|4 Website-Blocking Injunctions|193
3|5 Ad-Supported Piracy|196
3|6 Conclusion|197
3|References|199
2|Continued Economic Benefit to the Author: Royalties in the Indian Film Industry – Historical Development, Current Status, and Practical Application|202
3|1 Introduction|203
3|2 Music Deals: Indian Context|203
3|3 Historical Perspective|206
4|3.1 Judicial Backdrop to the Amendments|206
4|3.2 The Problems with Copyright Societies in India|210
3|4 The New Royalties Regime|212
3|5 The Aftermath of the Amendments|215
3|6 Conclusion: The Way Forward|218
3|References|219
1|Part IV: Pharmaceutical Industry|221
2|Pharmaceutical Industry in China: Policy, Market and IP|222
3|1 Approaches and Framework|223
3|2 Overview of China’s Pharmaceutical Industry|223
4|2.1 The Historical Development|223
4|2.2 Current Status|223
5|2.2.1 Expansion of Total Industrial Scale|223
5|2.2.2 Improvement in Industrial Capacity|225
5|2.2.3 High Degree of Market Opening Up, Strong Market Shares by Foreign-Funded Enterprises|226
5|2.2.4 Administration of Pharmaceutical Industries in China|227
4|2.3 Problems in the Development of China’s Pharmaceutical Industry|227
5|2.3.1 Low R&D Investment in Pharmaceutical Companies|227
5|2.3.2 Vehicle for New Drugs R&D Is Research Institutions, Not Enterprises|229
5|2.3.3 Lack of Advanced Technology and IP Rights by Chinese Pharmaceutical Companies|229
5|2.3.4 Small-Scale Pharma Companies, Low Market Concentration and Substantial Percentage of Enterprises in Deficit|230
5|2.3.5 Increasing but Low Export of Traditional Chinese Medicine|230
3|3 Policy Structure of China’s Pharmaceutical Industry|231
4|3.1 The Access to Drug Market and Approval of Drugs|231
5|3.1.1 Approval of New Drugs|231
5|3.1.2 The Generic Drug Application Procedure and Its Incentive System|232
4|3.2 Drug Pricing Policies|232
4|3.3 Regulatory Policies on Industrial Structure and Layout|237
3|4 The Market Structure of China’s Pharmaceutical Industries|237
4|4.1 The High Expenditure Rate Under China’s Medicare System|237
4|4.2 The Dominant Mode of Monopoly by Hospitals|238
5|4.2.1 The “Hospital and Pharmacy Together” Model Facilitates Drug Sales by Hospitals|238
5|4.2.2 The “Hospitals Supported by Medicines” Phenomenon Provides Hospitals with Monopoly Power|239
5|4.2.3 Drug Management Policies Conducive to Monopoly|239
5|4.2.4 The Supply and Demand Characteristics of the Medical Industry Conducive to Monopoly|241
4|4.3 China’s Generic Drug Market|241
5|4.3.1 Generic Drugs Occupy the Drug Markets|241
5|4.3.2 The Opportunities upon Patent Expiration|242
3|5 IP Structure in Pharmaceutical Industries in China|243
4|5.1 The Patented Drug Market|243
5|5.1.1 The Demand for Drugs Against Infectious Diseases Relies on Patented Drugs|243
5|5.1.2 Patented Drugs Are More Profitable Than Generic Drugs|244
5|5.1.3 National Drug Price Negotiations Increased the Sales of Patented Drugs|244
5|5.1.4 The Patent Linkage System Is Imperfect|245
5|5.1.5 Domestic Patented Drugs Far Fewer Than Imported Patented Drugs|245
4|5.2 The Characteristics of Typical Self-Developed Patented Drugs|246
5|5.2.1 Polymorphic Drug Patents|246
5|5.2.2 Botanical Drug Patents|247
3|6 Comparison of the Pharmaceutical Industries Between China and India|250
4|6.1 Similarities and Differences|250
4|6.2 India as Patent Maverick vs. China as Patent Taker|252
4|6.3 Summary|252
3|7 Conclusion|254
3|References|255
2|Indian Patent Law and Its Impact on the Pharmaceutical Industry: What Can China Learn from India?|258
3|1 TRIPS Agreement and India’s Pharmaceutical Patent System|259
4|1.1 Amendment in 1999: Increased Exclusive Marketing Rights in Transition Period|259
4|1.2 Amendment in 2002: Wide-Ranging Changes to Meet the TRIPS Standards|260
4|1.3 Amendment in 2005: Comprehensive Improvement Before the Expiration of Transition Period|263
3|2 The Impact of Indian Patent Law on the Local Pharmaceutical Industry|264
4|2.1 Rejection of Product Patent|264
4|2.2 Mailbox Application Mechanism|266
4|2.3 Compulsory Licensing System|267
4|2.4 Interpretation of Patentable Subject Matter|268
3|3 China’s Patent Legislation and Patent Protection for Pharmaceuticals|269
4|3.1 From Denying to Recognizing Patent Protection for Pharmaceutical Products|269
4|3.2 Compulsory License for Exploitation of Pharmaceutical Patents in Theory but Not in Practice|271
4|3.3 From Experimental Use Exception to Bolar Exception|272
3|4 What Could China Learn from India?|273
4|4.1 To Fully Utilize the TRIPS Exceptions to Prepare Domestic Pharmaceutical Industry|273
4|4.2 Legal Professionals Who Understand Global Rules|273
4|4.3 Measures to Promote Drug Innovation and Develop Generic Drugs|274
3|5 Conclusion|275
3|References|275
2|Historical Evolution of India’s Patent Regime and Its Impact on Innovation in the Indian Pharmaceutical Industry|277
3|1 Introduction|278
3|2 Overview of the Indian Pharmaceutical Industry|279
4|2.1 Business Achievements|279
4|2.2 Investments, Mergers, and Acquisitions|280
3|3 Goals and Priorities of the Indian Patent Regime|280
3|4 Brief Overview of the Indian Patent Regime’s History|281
3|5 The Historical Evolution of India’s Patent Regime and Its Impact|282
4|5.1 1947–1970|283
4|5.2 1970–1995|285
4|5.3 1995–2005|287
4|5.4 The Key Provisions That Gained Prominence After 2005|289
4|5.5 The Novartis vs. Union of India Case Study|292
4|5.6 The Natco Pharma vs. Bayer Corporation (Nexavar Compulsory License) Case|295
3|6 Conclusion|301
3|References|303
2|The Challenges, Opportunities and Performance of the Indian Pharmaceutical Industry Post-TRIPS|305
3|1 Introduction|306
3|2 India’s TRIPS-Compliant Patent Law|307
4|2.1 Section 3(d): Preventing Grant of Patents on Minor Modifications|307
4|2.2 Compulsory Licencing System|311
3|3 Indian Pharmaceutical Industry Since the Implementation of TRIPS Agreement|312
4|3.1 Economic Performance of Leading Companies|312
5|3.1.1 Net Worth of 20 Largest Pharmaceutical Companies|312
5|3.1.2 Sales Turnover of Top 20 Pharmaceutical Companies|313
5|3.1.3 Profitability Ratios of Top 20 Pharmaceutical Companies|315
4|3.2 Indian Industry in Global Markets|317
4|3.3 Penetration of Indian Generics into Industrially Advanced Countries: The Case of the United States|320
4|3.4 The Technology Dimension|322
3|4 Concluding Remarks|327
3|References|328
1|Part V: Plant Varieties and Food Security|330
2|Protecting New Plant Varieties in China and Its Major Problems|331
3|1 Status of Protection of New Plant Varieties in China|331
4|1.1 The General Background|331
4|1.2 The Research Status of Protection of New Plant Varieties|333
4|1.3 Granting of Breeders’ Rights in China|334
5|1.3.1 The Total Number of Breeders’ Rights Granted in China by June 2018|334
5|1.3.2 Period Needed for Applying for Breeders’ Rights in China|334
5|1.3.3 Foreign Applicants Obtaining Breeders’ Rights in China|334
5|1.3.4 Commercial Use of Breeders’ Rights in China|335
4|1.4 Chinese Applying for Breeders’ Rights with Foreign Countries: Extremely Rare|335
3|2 Types of Disputes Occurred in China|335
4|2.1 Dispute Over Ownership and the Right to Apply for Breeders’ Rights|336
4|2.2 Infringement of Breeder’s Rights|336
5|2.2.1 Fabricating a Variety Name|336
5|2.2.2 Forging or Imitating Another Person’s Authorized Variety|336
5|2.2.3 Unauthorized Use of Authorized Varieties of Others|337
5|2.2.4 Plundering Others’ Right to Apply for Breeder’s Rights|337
5|2.2.5 Stealing Others’ Authorized Varieties|337
5|2.2.6 Using Essentially Derived Varieties|338
4|2.3 Contract Disputes for New Plant Varieties|339
5|2.3.1 Over Commissioning Production Seeds|339
5|2.3.2 Arising from Transfer Contract or License Contract|339
5|2.3.3 Over Contracts on Breeding New Plant Varieties|339
3|3 Major Deficiencies and Shortcomings of Existing Laws|340
4|3.1 Overall Lower Level of Protection|340
4|3.2 Serious Disconnect Between New Plant Varieties and Agricultural and Forestry Production|340
4|3.3 The Social Effects of the Existing Legislative Content Are Not Ideal|341
3|4 Main Reasons Affecting the Protection of New Plant Varieties|341
4|4.1 The Influence and Role of Social Status on Legal Status|341
4|4.2 Social Status and Legal Status Reflected in the Legislation and Enforcement of New Plant Varieties|342
5|4.2.1 Treating New Plant Varieties Simply as an Ordinary Commodity|342
5|4.2.2 Some Law Has Fallen into the Shadow of Foreign Law|342
5|4.2.3 The Spirit and Rationale of Law Are Affected by Times|343
3|5 Measures Proposed for Perfecting the Protection of New Plant Varieties in China|344
4|5.1 Institutions Authorizing Breeder’s Rights Should Be Unified|344
4|5.2 To Apply the 1991 UPOV Convention Text as Soon as Possible|344
4|5.3 To Revise and Improve the Legal Regimes on New Plant Varieties|344
5|5.3.1 To Set Up Special “Variety Name Rights”|345
5|5.3.2 To Add the Requirement of Practicality as One Condition for Obtaining the Breeder’s Rights|345
5|5.3.3 To Establish a Professional Qualification Restriction System for Infringers|345
5|5.3.4 To Set Up a System of “Statutory Starting Point for Damages” in Legal Liability|346
5|5.3.5 To Set Up Clear Criminal Responsibility|347
5|5.3.6 To Establish “Unified Jurisdiction of the Same Infringement Series of Cases”|348
5|5.3.7 To Add “Special Rights of Farmers”|349
3|6 Conclusion|349
3|References|350
2|Genetically Modified Foods in China: Regulation, Deregulation, or Governance?|351
3|1 Introduction|352
3|2 Biotechnology: Promotion of Science and Risk Prevention|356
4|2.1 Scientific and Technological Advancement|356
4|2.2 Promotion of Biotechnology from a Scientific Perspective|357
4|2.3 Legal Protection Mechanisms for Biotechnology|358
4|2.4 Biotechnology in the Field of Agriculture and the Regulation of Its Biosafety|361
3|3 The Regulation of GM Food in China|363
4|3.1 Evolution for GM Food Regulation|363
4|3.2 Key Mechanisms to Ensure GM Food Safety|365
5|3.2.1 Scientific Assessment|365
5|3.2.2 Labeling|365
5|3.2.3 Risk Communication|366
4|3.3 Ongoing Debates on GM Food Regulation|367
5|3.3.1 National Condition|367
5|3.3.2 Scientific Assessment and Public Perception|368
5|3.3.3 Scientific Certainty Versus Scientific Uncertainty|368
3|4 Conclusion: Governance Over Regulation|369
3|References|370
2|Genetically Modified Plants: The IP and Regulatory Concerns in India|371
3|1 Introduction|372
3|2 Transgenic Plants/GM Plants: Understanding the Technology|374
3|3 Genetically Modified Plants: Patent Protection|376
4|3.1 Plants or Animals and Conventional Methods of Production and Propagation of Plants and Animals Are An Unpatentable Subject Matter|377
4|3.2 Differing Interpretations of What Is Covered Under “Any Part of a Plant” of Section 3(j) of the Patents Act: To Consider an Artificial DNA Construct as a Part of a Plant Is Scientifically Incorrect|378
4|3.3 Transformation Is Neither a Conventional Breeding Method nor an “Essentially Biological Process” for Production of Plants|381
3|4 Genetically Modified Plants: Plant Variety Protection|384
4|4.1 Difference Between Patent Law and PPV&FR Act|384
5|4.1.1 Transformation Method Cannot Get Protection Under PPV&FR Act|384
5|4.1.2 PPV&FR Act Allows Breeders to Use Protected Varieties to Develop Newer Ones|385
5|4.1.3 Benefit Sharing Under PPV&FR Act Offers No Benefits to IP Holders|386
4|4.2 Infringement Under PPV&FR Act|387
4|4.3 Researcher’s Rights?|388
3|5 Conclusion|388
3|References|390
2|Rooting for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security Through Improved Regulatory Governance in India|391
3|1 Introduction|392
3|2 Sustainable Food Systems: An Ideal Approach|396
4|2.1 Food Distribution as a Policy: The Why’s and How To’s for India|396
4|2.2 Sustainable Agriculture for Practicable Food Security: The Law and Policy of It|399
4|2.3 Regulatory Aims, Efforts and Challenges|401
5|2.3.1 UNFAO CPF for India: New Aspirations for Zero Hunger|402
3|3 Agroecological Practices Versus IP-Centred Industrial Model|403
4|3.1 Impact of Adopting Proprietary Plants and Seeds: An Overview|404
5|3.1.1 Capitalism and Competition Concerns|404
5|3.1.2 Seed Regulation and GMOs in India|405
5|3.1.3 Litigation Concerning Ag-Biotech (Gene) Patents in India|409
5|3.1.4 Other Noteworthy Developments|412
3|4 Conclusion|413
1|Part VI: Automobile Industry|416
2|Challenges in Reshaping the Sectoral Innovation System of the Chinese Automobile Industry|417
3|1 Introduction: Two Camps and Two Catching-Up Trajectories in One Industry|418
3|2 Technological Catching-Up in FFV Sector|422
4|2.1 Through Strict Entry Regulation and TMFT|422
4|2.2 Through China-Foreign JVs|423
4|2.3 Through New Local Entrants|425
3|3 China’s Technological Innovation in EV Industry|428
4|3.1 Government-Backed Development|428
5|3.1.1 Central Government|428
5|3.1.2 Local Governments|430
4|3.2 Chery-Led Development|431
4|3.3 The BYD-Led Development|432
4|3.4 Overall Assessment|432
3|4 Patent Analysis in China’s Car-Making Industry|433
4|4.1 General Patent Analysis|433
4|4.2 Patents in FFV Sector: Engines As an Example|435
4|4.3 Patents in EV Sector|437
3|5 Conclusion and Prospects|438
3|Appendix 1: Firms in Different Categories (25 Firms Analyzed in This Chapter)|439
3|References|439
2|The Growth of the Indian Automobile Industry: Analysis of the Roles of Government Policy and Other Enabling Factors|441
3|1 Introduction|442
3|2 Structure and Makeup of the Indian Automobile Industry|442
3|3 Growth Path of the Indian Automotive Industry|444
4|3.1 From 1950 to 1980: Very Slow-Paced Growth|444
4|3.2 First Wave of FDI from 1981 to 1991|444
4|3.3 Second Wave of FDI Since 1992|445
4|3.4 Since 2001 Fully De-licensed, Free Imports and 100% FDI Allowed|448
3|4 Role of the Government|452
3|5 Other Enabling Factors in the Growth of the Industry|455
4|5.1 Role of Domestic Demand|455
4|5.2 Impact of FDI|456
5|5.2.1 Output and Productivity|456
5|5.2.2 Technology|456
4|5.3 Role of JVs|457
4|5.4 Firm Strategies, Ownership, and Managerial Vision|458
3|6 Upgrading and Innovation|459
3|7 The Future Scenario|461
3|8 Conclusion|463
3|References|464
1|Part VII: The Culture of Sharing and the Sharing Economy|466
2|Development of the Sharing Economy in China: Challenges and Lessons|467
3|1 Introduction|468
3|2 The Sharing Economy|469
4|2.1 The Concept and Characteristics|469
4|2.2 The Operating Principles|470
5|2.2.1 Creating Sufficient Supply and Demand|471
5|2.2.2 Creating an Effective Mechanism for Search and Matching|471
5|2.2.3 Creating the Trust Mechanism|472
3|3 The Development and Experiences of the Sharing Economy in China|472
4|3.1 Development of the Internet Economy and Third-Party Payment Platforms|472
4|3.2 The Current Status of the Sharing Economy|473
4|3.3 Achievements of the Sharing Economy|475
3|4 The Challenges of the Sharing Economy in China and Their Solutions|475
4|4.1 Duplicated Investment and Vicious Competition|475
5|4.1.1 The Problem|475
5|4.1.2 The Solution|476
4|4.2 The Sustainability Issue|477
5|4.2.1 Cases of Infringement of Consumer Rights Grow Rapidly|477
5|4.2.2 Distortion of the Reputation Evaluation System|478
5|4.2.3 The Solution|478
4|4.3 The Negative Externalities Issue|480
5|4.3.1 Regulatory Fairness|480
5|4.3.2 Monopoly Issue|480
5|4.3.3 Protection of Laborers’ Rights|481
5|4.3.4 Protection of Users’ Information|482
5|4.3.5 Tax Issues|483
3|5 Conclusion|483
3|References|483
2|Knowledge Sharing and the Sharing Economy in India|485
3|1 Knowledge and the Sharing Economy|486
3|2 Historical Perspectives on Knowledge Sharing in India|488
4|2.1 Perspectives on Knowledge Sharing in Ancient India|488
4|2.2 Gender-Based Restrictions to Knowledge|489
4|2.3 Caste-Based Restrictions to Knowledge|493
3|3 Perceptions Regarding Sharing of Knowledge Resources and Ownership of IP in the Contemporary Indian Society|497
4|3.1 Survey on Knowledge Sharing Perceptions and Practices of Researchers|497
4|3.2 Study on Attitude of Film Consumers Towards IP Protection|500
3|4 Knowledge Sharing and Some Recent Policies|502
4|4.1 National Intellectual Property Rights Policy, 2016|502
4|4.2 Startup India Action Plan, 2016|506
3|5 Challenging the Status Quo: The Way Forward?|507
3|References|508
1|Index|510
1|About the Authors|9
1|Introduction, Summary, and Some Inferences|18
2|1 Background|19
2|2 Methodology|21
2|3 Summary of the Findings of the Seven Study Groups|21
3|3.1 IP Codification and Innovation Governance|21
3|3.2 IT Industry|22
4|3.2.1 Current Status|22
4|3.2.2 Major Findings|25
3|3.3 Film Industry|26
4|3.3.1 Current Status|26
3|3.4 Pharmaceutical Industry|29
4|3.4.1 Current Status|29
3|3.5 Plant Varieties and Food Security|32
4|3.5.1 Current Status|32
3|3.6 Automobile Industry|33
4|3.6.1 Current Status|34
3|3.7 The Culture of Sharing and the Sharing Economy|37
3|3.8 Current Status|37
1|Part I: IP Codification and Innovation Governance|40
2|On the necessity of incorporating IP Laws into the Civil Law of China and How|41
3|1 Introduction|41
3|2 The Establishment of IP Rights Has Revolutionized Property|42
3|3 Doctrinal and Practical Value of Codifying IP Laws into the Civil Law|44
4|3.1 The Civil Law Principally Guides IP Laws|44
4|3.2 Feedback from IP Theories and Systems to the Civil Law|47
3|4 Choice of Models for the Fusion Between IP Laws and the Civil Law|48
3|5 Relationship Between IP Laws, the General Provisions of the Civil Law and Its Respective Chapters|50
3|6 Technical Issues for Fusing IP Laws into the Civil Law|51
3|7 IP Laws and the Rule of Law in China|53
2|Constitutional Governance in India and China and Its Impact on National Innovation|54
3|1 Introduction|54
3|2 Brief Introduction to the National Innovation System|56
3|3 Different Political Philosophy for Social Revolution and Social Justice|58
4|3.1 Social Revolution: Violent Revolution vs. Democratic Governance|58
4|3.2 Pursuing Social Justice: Transcendental Institutionalism vs. Realization-Focused Comparison|61
3|4 Power Distribution: Government Accountability vs. Policy Innovation|63
4|4.1 Vertical Power Distribution: Accountability vs. Local Innovation|63
4|4.2 Horizontal Power Distribution: Accountability vs. Policy Innovation|67
4|4.3 Constitutional Enforcement: Citizens’ Rights vs. State Power|69
3|5 The Impact of Constitutional Governance on Economic Development Path and Innovation Strategy|72
4|5.1 Impact on Economic Development Path|72
4|5.2 Case Study on ICT of the Impact on Innovation Strategy|75
3|6 Conclusion|78
3|References|79
1|Part II: IT Industry|83
2|Information Technology Industry in China|84
3|1 Introduction|85
3|2 Economic Development Patterns and Characteristics in General|85
4|2.1 Development Patterns|85
4|2.2 Economic Development Characteristics|86
4|2.3 Identifying and Explaining Similarities and Differences|86
3|3 IT Industries: Two Kinds of Technical and Business Sectors|89
3|4 Comparing the Two Countries|91
4|4.1 Government Policies on IT Industries|94
5|4.1.1 China|94
5|4.1.2 India|95
4|4.2 Comparative Advantages of Chinese IT Companies|96
4|4.3 Comparative Advantages of Indian IT Companies|98
5|4.3.1 Strengths|98
5|4.3.2 Reasons Attributed to Stronger Competitiveness|99
5|4.3.3 Challenges|101
3|5 IP Factors in China and India|102
4|5.1 National-Level Patent Strategies|102
4|5.2 Firm-Level IP Strategies|102
3|6 Conclusion|103
3|References|103
2|India’s Information Technology Industry: A Tale of Two Halves|106
3|1 Introduction|107
3|2 The Computer Electronics Industry in India|108
4|2.1 Triggering the Development of the Industry|108
4|2.2 Facilitating the Growth of the Electronics Industry in the 1980s|109
4|2.3 Technology Imports and Domestic R&D Behaviour|111
5|2.3.1 Domestic R&D Behaviour: C-DAC and Param Supercomputer|111
4|2.4 Electronics Industry in the Period of Economic Reforms|112
4|2.5 Manufacturing|113
4|2.6 Strategic Role of Standards|114
3|3 India’s Information Technology-Enabled Services|116
4|3.1 Evolution of the ITES Industry in India|116
4|3.2 The Beginnings of a Global ITES Hub|117
4|3.3 Consolidation of the Industry Since the Mid-1980s|117
4|3.4 Software Technology Parks and IT Clusters|118
4|3.5 India as an ITES Leader in the New Millennium|119
4|3.6 Current Status|119
4|3.7 R&D, Innovation and Intellectual Property Rights|120
3|4 Patentability of Computer-Related Inventions in India|121
4|4.1 Yardsticks Followed by the CG Office to Deal with Section 3(k)|122
5|4.1.1 The 2013 Guidelines|122
5|4.1.2 The 2015 Guidelines|123
5|4.1.3 The 2017 Guidelines|124
4|4.2 Court Decisions on Patenting of Computer Programmes|125
3|5 By Way of Conclusions|128
3|References|129
1|Part III: Film Industry|131
2|Chinese Film Industry Under the Lens of Copyright, Policy, and Market|132
3|1 Early Cinema (1896–1930)|132
3|2 Wartime Cinema (1930–1949)|135
3|3 Socialist Cinema (1949–1978)|137
4|3.1 State-Owned and Policy-Controlled Cinema|137
4|3.2 Film Copyright Remained Unattended|138
3|4 Contemporary Cinema (1979–Present)|139
4|4.1 Recovery Period of Internal Reform|139
4|4.2 Cinema Marketization|142
5|4.2.1 The 1990 Copyright Law Set Up Basic Copyright Framework for the Film Industry|142
5|4.2.2 Further Reform in Film Distribution, Import, and Production|144
5|4.2.3 A Comprehensive Prior Approval System for Films|145
4|4.3 Industrialization|146
5|4.3.1 Further Liberalization of Import and Distribution of Foreign Films|146
5|4.3.2 Nationwide Cinema Chains|146
5|4.3.3 Further Liberalization of Film Production|147
5|4.3.4 Internet Giants Are Swarming into the Film Industry|149
5|4.3.5 Film Copyright|149
3|5 Challenges Ahead|150
3|References|152
2|Reminiscing About the Golden Age: An Analysis of Efforts to Revive the Hong Kong Film Industry Through the Lens of Copyright Protection|155
3|1 Introduction|156
3|2 Hong Kong Film Industry: Growth and Decline|156
4|2.1 Factors Within the Core Model of the Hong Kong Film Industry|160
4|2.2 External Factors|161
3|3 The Road to Revival of the Hong Kong Film Industry|165
4|3.1 Hong Kong Film Development Council|165
4|3.2 Hong Kong International Film and TV Market and Hong Kong International Film Festival|166
4|3.3 Film Development Fund|166
4|3.4 Create Hong Kong (CreateHK) and Hong Kong Arts Development Council|167
4|3.5 Closer Economic Partnership Agreement|167
3|4 The Implications of the Hong Kong Copyright Framework on the Film Revival|168
4|4.1 Co-authorship of Films|169
4|4.2 Unclear Scope of “Copy” and Insufficient Protection for Secondary Creation|172
4|4.3 Criminal Liability for Copyright Infringement|175
3|5 Conclusion|178
3|References|179
4|Codes and Statutes|179
4|Jurisprudence|179
4|Books|180
4|Journal Articles|180
4|Official Reports|180
4|Newspapers & Websites|181
2|Contemporary Challenges of Online Copyright Enforcement in India|183
3|1 Introduction|184
3|2 The Piracy Landscape in India|187
3|3 Targeting End-Users: A Graduated Response Proposal|190
3|4 Website-Blocking Injunctions|193
3|5 Ad-Supported Piracy|196
3|6 Conclusion|197
3|References|199
2|Continued Economic Benefit to the Author: Royalties in the Indian Film Industry – Historical Development, Current Status, and Practical Application|202
3|1 Introduction|203
3|2 Music Deals: Indian Context|203
3|3 Historical Perspective|206
4|3.1 Judicial Backdrop to the Amendments|206
4|3.2 The Problems with Copyright Societies in India|210
3|4 The New Royalties Regime|212
3|5 The Aftermath of the Amendments|215
3|6 Conclusion: The Way Forward|218
3|References|219
1|Part IV: Pharmaceutical Industry|221
2|Pharmaceutical Industry in China: Policy, Market and IP|222
3|1 Approaches and Framework|223
3|2 Overview of China’s Pharmaceutical Industry|223
4|2.1 The Historical Development|223
4|2.2 Current Status|223
5|2.2.1 Expansion of Total Industrial Scale|223
5|2.2.2 Improvement in Industrial Capacity|225
5|2.2.3 High Degree of Market Opening Up, Strong Market Shares by Foreign-Funded Enterprises|226
5|2.2.4 Administration of Pharmaceutical Industries in China|227
4|2.3 Problems in the Development of China’s Pharmaceutical Industry|227
5|2.3.1 Low R&D Investment in Pharmaceutical Companies|227
5|2.3.2 Vehicle for New Drugs R&D Is Research Institutions, Not Enterprises|229
5|2.3.3 Lack of Advanced Technology and IP Rights by Chinese Pharmaceutical Companies|229
5|2.3.4 Small-Scale Pharma Companies, Low Market Concentration and Substantial Percentage of Enterprises in Deficit|230
5|2.3.5 Increasing but Low Export of Traditional Chinese Medicine|230
3|3 Policy Structure of China’s Pharmaceutical Industry|231
4|3.1 The Access to Drug Market and Approval of Drugs|231
5|3.1.1 Approval of New Drugs|231
5|3.1.2 The Generic Drug Application Procedure and Its Incentive System|232
4|3.2 Drug Pricing Policies|232
4|3.3 Regulatory Policies on Industrial Structure and Layout|237
3|4 The Market Structure of China’s Pharmaceutical Industries|237
4|4.1 The High Expenditure Rate Under China’s Medicare System|237
4|4.2 The Dominant Mode of Monopoly by Hospitals|238
5|4.2.1 The “Hospital and Pharmacy Together” Model Facilitates Drug Sales by Hospitals|238
5|4.2.2 The “Hospitals Supported by Medicines” Phenomenon Provides Hospitals with Monopoly Power|239
5|4.2.3 Drug Management Policies Conducive to Monopoly|239
5|4.2.4 The Supply and Demand Characteristics of the Medical Industry Conducive to Monopoly|241
4|4.3 China’s Generic Drug Market|241
5|4.3.1 Generic Drugs Occupy the Drug Markets|241
5|4.3.2 The Opportunities upon Patent Expiration|242
3|5 IP Structure in Pharmaceutical Industries in China|243
4|5.1 The Patented Drug Market|243
5|5.1.1 The Demand for Drugs Against Infectious Diseases Relies on Patented Drugs|243
5|5.1.2 Patented Drugs Are More Profitable Than Generic Drugs|244
5|5.1.3 National Drug Price Negotiations Increased the Sales of Patented Drugs|244
5|5.1.4 The Patent Linkage System Is Imperfect|245
5|5.1.5 Domestic Patented Drugs Far Fewer Than Imported Patented Drugs|245
4|5.2 The Characteristics of Typical Self-Developed Patented Drugs|246
5|5.2.1 Polymorphic Drug Patents|246
5|5.2.2 Botanical Drug Patents|247
3|6 Comparison of the Pharmaceutical Industries Between China and India|250
4|6.1 Similarities and Differences|250
4|6.2 India as Patent Maverick vs. China as Patent Taker|252
4|6.3 Summary|252
3|7 Conclusion|254
3|References|255
2|Indian Patent Law and Its Impact on the Pharmaceutical Industry: What Can China Learn from India?|258
3|1 TRIPS Agreement and India’s Pharmaceutical Patent System|259
4|1.1 Amendment in 1999: Increased Exclusive Marketing Rights in Transition Period|259
4|1.2 Amendment in 2002: Wide-Ranging Changes to Meet the TRIPS Standards|260
4|1.3 Amendment in 2005: Comprehensive Improvement Before the Expiration of Transition Period|263
3|2 The Impact of Indian Patent Law on the Local Pharmaceutical Industry|264
4|2.1 Rejection of Product Patent|264
4|2.2 Mailbox Application Mechanism|266
4|2.3 Compulsory Licensing System|267
4|2.4 Interpretation of Patentable Subject Matter|268
3|3 China’s Patent Legislation and Patent Protection for Pharmaceuticals|269
4|3.1 From Denying to Recognizing Patent Protection for Pharmaceutical Products|269
4|3.2 Compulsory License for Exploitation of Pharmaceutical Patents in Theory but Not in Practice|271
4|3.3 From Experimental Use Exception to Bolar Exception|272
3|4 What Could China Learn from India?|273
4|4.1 To Fully Utilize the TRIPS Exceptions to Prepare Domestic Pharmaceutical Industry|273
4|4.2 Legal Professionals Who Understand Global Rules|273
4|4.3 Measures to Promote Drug Innovation and Develop Generic Drugs|274
3|5 Conclusion|275
3|References|275
2|Historical Evolution of India’s Patent Regime and Its Impact on Innovation in the Indian Pharmaceutical Industry|277
3|1 Introduction|278
3|2 Overview of the Indian Pharmaceutical Industry|279
4|2.1 Business Achievements|279
4|2.2 Investments, Mergers, and Acquisitions|280
3|3 Goals and Priorities of the Indian Patent Regime|280
3|4 Brief Overview of the Indian Patent Regime’s History|281
3|5 The Historical Evolution of India’s Patent Regime and Its Impact|282
4|5.1 1947–1970|283
4|5.2 1970–1995|285
4|5.3 1995–2005|287
4|5.4 The Key Provisions That Gained Prominence After 2005|289
4|5.5 The Novartis vs. Union of India Case Study|292
4|5.6 The Natco Pharma vs. Bayer Corporation (Nexavar Compulsory License) Case|295
3|6 Conclusion|301
3|References|303
2|The Challenges, Opportunities and Performance of the Indian Pharmaceutical Industry Post-TRIPS|305
3|1 Introduction|306
3|2 India’s TRIPS-Compliant Patent Law|307
4|2.1 Section 3(d): Preventing Grant of Patents on Minor Modifications|307
4|2.2 Compulsory Licencing System|311
3|3 Indian Pharmaceutical Industry Since the Implementation of TRIPS Agreement|312
4|3.1 Economic Performance of Leading Companies|312
5|3.1.1 Net Worth of 20 Largest Pharmaceutical Companies|312
5|3.1.2 Sales Turnover of Top 20 Pharmaceutical Companies|313
5|3.1.3 Profitability Ratios of Top 20 Pharmaceutical Companies|315
4|3.2 Indian Industry in Global Markets|317
4|3.3 Penetration of Indian Generics into Industrially Advanced Countries: The Case of the United States|320
4|3.4 The Technology Dimension|322
3|4 Concluding Remarks|327
3|References|328
1|Part V: Plant Varieties and Food Security|330
2|Protecting New Plant Varieties in China and Its Major Problems|331
3|1 Status of Protection of New Plant Varieties in China|331
4|1.1 The General Background|331
4|1.2 The Research Status of Protection of New Plant Varieties|333
4|1.3 Granting of Breeders’ Rights in China|334
5|1.3.1 The Total Number of Breeders’ Rights Granted in China by June 2018|334
5|1.3.2 Period Needed for Applying for Breeders’ Rights in China|334
5|1.3.3 Foreign Applicants Obtaining Breeders’ Rights in China|334
5|1.3.4 Commercial Use of Breeders’ Rights in China|335
4|1.4 Chinese Applying for Breeders’ Rights with Foreign Countries: Extremely Rare|335
3|2 Types of Disputes Occurred in China|335
4|2.1 Dispute Over Ownership and the Right to Apply for Breeders’ Rights|336
4|2.2 Infringement of Breeder’s Rights|336
5|2.2.1 Fabricating a Variety Name|336
5|2.2.2 Forging or Imitating Another Person’s Authorized Variety|336
5|2.2.3 Unauthorized Use of Authorized Varieties of Others|337
5|2.2.4 Plundering Others’ Right to Apply for Breeder’s Rights|337
5|2.2.5 Stealing Others’ Authorized Varieties|337
5|2.2.6 Using Essentially Derived Varieties|338
4|2.3 Contract Disputes for New Plant Varieties|339
5|2.3.1 Over Commissioning Production Seeds|339
5|2.3.2 Arising from Transfer Contract or License Contract|339
5|2.3.3 Over Contracts on Breeding New Plant Varieties|339
3|3 Major Deficiencies and Shortcomings of Existing Laws|340
4|3.1 Overall Lower Level of Protection|340
4|3.2 Serious Disconnect Between New Plant Varieties and Agricultural and Forestry Production|340
4|3.3 The Social Effects of the Existing Legislative Content Are Not Ideal|341
3|4 Main Reasons Affecting the Protection of New Plant Varieties|341
4|4.1 The Influence and Role of Social Status on Legal Status|341
4|4.2 Social Status and Legal Status Reflected in the Legislation and Enforcement of New Plant Varieties|342
5|4.2.1 Treating New Plant Varieties Simply as an Ordinary Commodity|342
5|4.2.2 Some Law Has Fallen into the Shadow of Foreign Law|342
5|4.2.3 The Spirit and Rationale of Law Are Affected by Times|343
3|5 Measures Proposed for Perfecting the Protection of New Plant Varieties in China|344
4|5.1 Institutions Authorizing Breeder’s Rights Should Be Unified|344
4|5.2 To Apply the 1991 UPOV Convention Text as Soon as Possible|344
4|5.3 To Revise and Improve the Legal Regimes on New Plant Varieties|344
5|5.3.1 To Set Up Special “Variety Name Rights”|345
5|5.3.2 To Add the Requirement of Practicality as One Condition for Obtaining the Breeder’s Rights|345
5|5.3.3 To Establish a Professional Qualification Restriction System for Infringers|345
5|5.3.4 To Set Up a System of “Statutory Starting Point for Damages” in Legal Liability|346
5|5.3.5 To Set Up Clear Criminal Responsibility|347
5|5.3.6 To Establish “Unified Jurisdiction of the Same Infringement Series of Cases”|348
5|5.3.7 To Add “Special Rights of Farmers”|349
3|6 Conclusion|349
3|References|350
2|Genetically Modified Foods in China: Regulation, Deregulation, or Governance?|351
3|1 Introduction|352
3|2 Biotechnology: Promotion of Science and Risk Prevention|356
4|2.1 Scientific and Technological Advancement|356
4|2.2 Promotion of Biotechnology from a Scientific Perspective|357
4|2.3 Legal Protection Mechanisms for Biotechnology|358
4|2.4 Biotechnology in the Field of Agriculture and the Regulation of Its Biosafety|361
3|3 The Regulation of GM Food in China|363
4|3.1 Evolution for GM Food Regulation|363
4|3.2 Key Mechanisms to Ensure GM Food Safety|365
5|3.2.1 Scientific Assessment|365
5|3.2.2 Labeling|365
5|3.2.3 Risk Communication|366
4|3.3 Ongoing Debates on GM Food Regulation|367
5|3.3.1 National Condition|367
5|3.3.2 Scientific Assessment and Public Perception|368
5|3.3.3 Scientific Certainty Versus Scientific Uncertainty|368
3|4 Conclusion: Governance Over Regulation|369
3|References|370
2|Genetically Modified Plants: The IP and Regulatory Concerns in India|371
3|1 Introduction|372
3|2 Transgenic Plants/GM Plants: Understanding the Technology|374
3|3 Genetically Modified Plants: Patent Protection|376
4|3.1 Plants or Animals and Conventional Methods of Production and Propagation of Plants and Animals Are An Unpatentable Subject Matter|377
4|3.2 Differing Interpretations of What Is Covered Under “Any Part of a Plant” of Section 3(j) of the Patents Act: To Consider an Artificial DNA Construct as a Part of a Plant Is Scientifically Incorrect|378
4|3.3 Transformation Is Neither a Conventional Breeding Method nor an “Essentially Biological Process” for Production of Plants|381
3|4 Genetically Modified Plants: Plant Variety Protection|384
4|4.1 Difference Between Patent Law and PPV&FR Act|384
5|4.1.1 Transformation Method Cannot Get Protection Under PPV&FR Act|384
5|4.1.2 PPV&FR Act Allows Breeders to Use Protected Varieties to Develop Newer Ones|385
5|4.1.3 Benefit Sharing Under PPV&FR Act Offers No Benefits to IP Holders|386
4|4.2 Infringement Under PPV&FR Act|387
4|4.3 Researcher’s Rights?|388
3|5 Conclusion|388
3|References|390
2|Rooting for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security Through Improved Regulatory Governance in India|391
3|1 Introduction|392
3|2 Sustainable Food Systems: An Ideal Approach|396
4|2.1 Food Distribution as a Policy: The Why’s and How To’s for India|396
4|2.2 Sustainable Agriculture for Practicable Food Security: The Law and Policy of It|399
4|2.3 Regulatory Aims, Efforts and Challenges|401
5|2.3.1 UNFAO CPF for India: New Aspirations for Zero Hunger|402
3|3 Agroecological Practices Versus IP-Centred Industrial Model|403
4|3.1 Impact of Adopting Proprietary Plants and Seeds: An Overview|404
5|3.1.1 Capitalism and Competition Concerns|404
5|3.1.2 Seed Regulation and GMOs in India|405
5|3.1.3 Litigation Concerning Ag-Biotech (Gene) Patents in India|409
5|3.1.4 Other Noteworthy Developments|412
3|4 Conclusion|413
1|Part VI: Automobile Industry|416
2|Challenges in Reshaping the Sectoral Innovation System of the Chinese Automobile Industry|417
3|1 Introduction: Two Camps and Two Catching-Up Trajectories in One Industry|418
3|2 Technological Catching-Up in FFV Sector|422
4|2.1 Through Strict Entry Regulation and TMFT|422
4|2.2 Through China-Foreign JVs|423
4|2.3 Through New Local Entrants|425
3|3 China’s Technological Innovation in EV Industry|428
4|3.1 Government-Backed Development|428
5|3.1.1 Central Government|428
5|3.1.2 Local Governments|430
4|3.2 Chery-Led Development|431
4|3.3 The BYD-Led Development|432
4|3.4 Overall Assessment|432
3|4 Patent Analysis in China’s Car-Making Industry|433
4|4.1 General Patent Analysis|433
4|4.2 Patents in FFV Sector: Engines As an Example|435
4|4.3 Patents in EV Sector|437
3|5 Conclusion and Prospects|438
3|Appendix 1: Firms in Different Categories (25 Firms Analyzed in This Chapter)|439
3|References|439
2|The Growth of the Indian Automobile Industry: Analysis of the Roles of Government Policy and Other Enabling Factors|441
3|1 Introduction|442
3|2 Structure and Makeup of the Indian Automobile Industry|442
3|3 Growth Path of the Indian Automotive Industry|444
4|3.1 From 1950 to 1980: Very Slow-Paced Growth|444
4|3.2 First Wave of FDI from 1981 to 1991|444
4|3.3 Second Wave of FDI Since 1992|445
4|3.4 Since 2001 Fully De-licensed, Free Imports and 100% FDI Allowed|448
3|4 Role of the Government|452
3|5 Other Enabling Factors in the Growth of the Industry|455
4|5.1 Role of Domestic Demand|455
4|5.2 Impact of FDI|456
5|5.2.1 Output and Productivity|456
5|5.2.2 Technology|456
4|5.3 Role of JVs|457
4|5.4 Firm Strategies, Ownership, and Managerial Vision|458
3|6 Upgrading and Innovation|459
3|7 The Future Scenario|461
3|8 Conclusion|463
3|References|464
1|Part VII: The Culture of Sharing and the Sharing Economy|466
2|Development of the Sharing Economy in China: Challenges and Lessons|467
3|1 Introduction|468
3|2 The Sharing Economy|469
4|2.1 The Concept and Characteristics|469
4|2.2 The Operating Principles|470
5|2.2.1 Creating Sufficient Supply and Demand|471
5|2.2.2 Creating an Effective Mechanism for Search and Matching|471
5|2.2.3 Creating the Trust Mechanism|472
3|3 The Development and Experiences of the Sharing Economy in China|472
4|3.1 Development of the Internet Economy and Third-Party Payment Platforms|472
4|3.2 The Current Status of the Sharing Economy|473
4|3.3 Achievements of the Sharing Economy|475
3|4 The Challenges of the Sharing Economy in China and Their Solutions|475
4|4.1 Duplicated Investment and Vicious Competition|475
5|4.1.1 The Problem|475
5|4.1.2 The Solution|476
4|4.2 The Sustainability Issue|477
5|4.2.1 Cases of Infringement of Consumer Rights Grow Rapidly|477
5|4.2.2 Distortion of the Reputation Evaluation System|478
5|4.2.3 The Solution|478
4|4.3 The Negative Externalities Issue|480
5|4.3.1 Regulatory Fairness|480
5|4.3.2 Monopoly Issue|480
5|4.3.3 Protection of Laborers’ Rights|481
5|4.3.4 Protection of Users’ Information|482
5|4.3.5 Tax Issues|483
3|5 Conclusion|483
3|References|483
2|Knowledge Sharing and the Sharing Economy in India|485
3|1 Knowledge and the Sharing Economy|486
3|2 Historical Perspectives on Knowledge Sharing in India|488
4|2.1 Perspectives on Knowledge Sharing in Ancient India|488
4|2.2 Gender-Based Restrictions to Knowledge|489
4|2.3 Caste-Based Restrictions to Knowledge|493
3|3 Perceptions Regarding Sharing of Knowledge Resources and Ownership of IP in the Contemporary Indian Society|497
4|3.1 Survey on Knowledge Sharing Perceptions and Practices of Researchers|497
4|3.2 Study on Attitude of Film Consumers Towards IP Protection|500
3|4 Knowledge Sharing and Some Recent Policies|502
4|4.1 National Intellectual Property Rights Policy, 2016|502
4|4.2 Startup India Action Plan, 2016|506
3|5 Challenging the Status Quo: The Way Forward?|507
3|References|508
1|Index|510