File #2759: "2019_Book_JudicialPowerInAGlobalizedWorl.pdf"
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1|Preface|6
1|Vincent Anthony De Gaetano|7
1|Contents|9
1|The Independence of the Judiciary in Strasbourg Judicial Disciplinary Case Law: Judges as Applicants and National Judicial Cou...|13
2|1 Introduction|14
2|2 The Purview of This Chapter|15
2|3 The Dramatis Personæ: Applicant Judges|16
3|3.1 A Typology of Disciplinary Proceedings Instituted Against Applicant Judges|17
4|3.1.1 Where Applicant Judges Won the Complaint|17
5|3.1.1.1 Violated Provisions of the ECHR|18
5|3.1.1.2 Respondent States Responsible for a Violation of the Convention|19
5|3.1.1.3 Disciplinary Sanctions Imposed Upon Applicant Judges|19
5|3.1.1.4 National Disciplinary Institutions for Applicant Judges|20
5|3.1.1.5 National Reviewing Bodies for Applicant Judges|21
5|3.1.1.6 Partial Reparation for Applicant Judges in Terms of Article 41 ECHR|23
5|3.1.1.7 Legal Obligation on Respondent States to Put an End to a Breach of the ECHR and Afford Restitutio in Integrum in Terms...|24
2|4 The Pre-Vilho Eskelinen and Others v. Finland ECtHR Position|25
3|4.1 No Access to a Court in Employment Decisions Relating to Civil Servants|25
3|4.2 Civil Servants and Judges as Part of the Public Service|26
3|4.3 Legitimate Limitation of Conventional Rights on Public Servants|27
3|4.4 The Post-Vilho Eskelinen and Others v. Finland ECtHR Position|27
2|5 Confirmed ECtHR Violations of Article 6(1) ECHR in Relation to Applicant Judges|27
2|6 Confirmed Violations of Other ECHR Provisions in Relation to Applicant Judges|28
2|7 Pertinent Principles Enunciated by the Strasbourg Court in Cases Instituted by Applicant Judges|28
3|7.1 Rule of Law|29
3|7.2 Separation of Powers|29
3|7.3 Independence of the Judiciary|30
3|7.4 Convention Rights Apply Also to Public Servants|30
2|8 Appearance of Personal Bias|30
3|8.1 Making an Initial Appraisal of Guilt and Subsequently Hearing the Disciplinary Case: Prejudice Through Objective Impartial...|31
3|8.2 Objective Impartiality Through the Appearance of Personal Bias: National Law Disallowing Judicial Withdrawal|31
3|8.3 Appearance of Personal Bias: Prejudice Through Subjective Impartiality|31
3|8.4 Prejudice Through Subjective and Objective Impartiality|32
2|9 HCJ Structural Deficiencies Evinced from Strasbourg Case Law|32
3|9.1 Difficulties Posed by NJC´s Composition|33
3|9.2 Reviewing Authority Being Hierarchically Subordinate to the NJC Disciplinary Body of First Instance|34
3|9.3 Manner of Appointment of the Judiciary on NJCs|34
3|9.4 NJC Members´ Dependence on Primary Employer|34
3|9.5 The Position of Ex Officio NJC Members|34
3|9.6 Prosecutor General´s Involvement as an Ex Officio NJC Member|35
3|9.7 Requirement for Substantial Judicial Representation on Judicial Disciplinary Bodies|35
3|9.8 Lack of a Tribunal Established by Law Due to an Illegitimate Set Up of a Judicial Disciplinary Body|35
3|9.9 Lack of Due Consideration for the Proportionality of the Sanction|36
3|9.10 Incompatible Interference with Domestic Law|36
3|9.11 Lack of Forseeability|36
3|9.12 No Protection Against Arbitrariness|36
3|9.13 No Legal Certainty Due to Lack of a Limitation Period|36
3|9.14 No Legal Certainty for Applicant´s Dismissal at the Plenary Meeting of Parliament|37
3|9.15 Inadequate Time and Facilities for Defence Preparation|37
2|10 Other Human Rights´ Infringements by NJCs|37
3|10.1 Insufficiency of Reviewing Powers|37
3|10.2 Lack of a Provision of a Public Hearing|38
3|10.3 Procedural Unfairness and Unequality of Arms|38
3|10.4 Excessive Length of Proceedings|38
3|10.5 Breach of an Applicant Judge´s Privacy: Disproportionality and Arbitrariness|39
3|10.6 Breach of an Applicant Judge´s Freedom of Expression: Disproportionality of the Inflicted Sanction: Judge´s Right to Expr...|40
3|10.7 Breach of an Applicant Judge´s Right to an Effective Remedy|41
2|11 Conclusion|41
3|11.1 Recommendation for Further Study on the Subject Under Review|41
3|11.2 Recommendations for Adoption by Council of Europe Member States|43
2|References|44
1|The Selection of Judges and Advocate-General at the Court of Justice of the European Union: The Role of the Panel Established ...|45
2|1 Introduction|45
2|2 The Establishment of the Advisory Panel|47
3|2.1 The Process of Establishment|47
3|2.2 A Brief Comparison with the Advisory Panel Established by the Committee of Minister of the Council of Europe|48
2|3 The Composition and the Activities of the Panel|49
2|4 The Need for More Transparency|51
2|5 Concluding Remarks|55
2|References|56
2|Further Reading|56
1|The Fair Trial as a Guarantee of the Administrative Procedure|58
2|1 Introduction|58
2|2 Supranational Guarantees for Fair Trial|59
2|3 Engel Criteria and the Essentially Afflictive Nature of the Sanctions Imposed by the Financial Market Regulation Authorities|60
2|4 From the French COB and Commission Bancaire Cases to the Italian Grande Stevens|64
2|5 The So-Called Full Jurisdiction and the Problem of the Ex Post Compensation|67
2|References|70
1|Judicial Independence: Constitutional Principle or Human Right?|74
2|1 Introduction|74
2|2 The Requirement for Judicial Independence and Its Conditions|77
3|2.1 The Human Rights Discourse in Favour of Impartiality|77
3|2.2 The Link Between Impartiality and Independence|78
2|3 The Constitutional Judicial Function in the Separation of Powers|78
3|3.1 The Difficulty in Determining the Position of the Judicial Function|79
3|3.2 The Possible Confusion Between Separation and Independence|80
2|4 The Specific Case of France|81
3|4.1 An Informal Judicial Function|81
3|4.2 A Mixture of Legal Principles|82
2|References|84
1|The Role of the European Associations and Organisations of Judges in Promoting and Safeguarding the Judicial Independence|85
2|1 Introduction|85
2|2 The Importance of the Principle of Judicial Independence|86
3|2.1 The International Documents Regarding Principle of Judicial Independence|86
3|2.2 The Safeguards of Judicial Independence|88
2|3 The Organisations Providing the Judicial Training|90
3|3.1 European Judicial Training Network (EJTN)|91
3|3.2 The European Programme for Human Rights Education for Legal Professionals (HELP)|92
3|3.3 The International Organization for Judicial Training (IOJT)|93
2|4 The Importance of the Judicial Associations and Organisations on the European Level|94
3|4.1 European Association of Judges (EAJ)|94
3|4.2 International Association of Judges (IAJ)|94
3|4.3 Magistrats Européens pour la Démocratie et les Libertés (MEDEL)|95
3|4.4 Consultative Council of European Judges (CCJE)|96
3|4.5 European Network of Councils of Judiciary (ENCJ)|97
3|4.6 Association of European Administrative Judges (AEAJ)|98
2|5 Instead of Summary|99
2|References|99
1|Independence of International Courts|101
2|1 Introduction: The Proliferation of International Judicial Bodies|101
2|2 International Judicial Independence|102
2|3 Difference Between National and International Judicial Independence|103
2|4 Ways of Influencing the Actions of International Courts|106
2|5 The Concept of Accountability As a Component of Legitimacy: The Relationship Between Independence and Accountability|109
2|6 Conclusion|111
2|References|112
1|Institutional Nature of International Courts and Its Impact on Their Competence|115
2|1 Conditions of International Cooperation|115
2|2 Common Values and Institutional Measures|116
2|3 Rigidity Factor|117
2|4 Institutional Problems of the European Court of Human Rights|118
2|5 Sources of Legitimacy of the Court and the Scope of Obligations of the Member States|120
2|6 Competence of the ECHR|121
2|7 Conclusion|122
1|Human Dignity as a Normative Concept. ``Dialogue´´ Between European Courts (ECtHR and CJEU)?|124
2|1 Human Dignity: From Semantic Ambiguity Towards a Normative Concept|124
2|2 Short Review of a Set of International Instruments with Reference to Dignity. Focus on a Bill of Rights of New Generation: T...|126
2|3 Human Dignity: From Lack of Explicit Reference in the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms to Increa...|129
2|4 The References to Dignity in the CJEU Case-Law|133
2|5 Embryonic Expressions of ``Dialogue´´ Between European Courts (ECtHR and CJEU)|137
2|References|138
1|The Dialogue Between the European Court of Human Rights and Domestic Authorities: Between Respect for Subsidiarity and Deferen...|140
2|1 Forms of Dialogue Within the European Convention on Human Rights System|142
3|1.1 Dialogue with the Judiciary|142
3|1.2 Dialogue with the Legislative Power|146
2|2 Impact of the Renewed Use of Subsidiarity on the European Court of Human Rights|147
3|2.1 Procedural Control and Increased Level of Abstraction in the Reasoning of the European Court of Human Rights|148
3|2.2 Legitimacy and Authority of the European Court of Human Rights|150
2|3 Conclusion|151
2|References|151
1|On Legitimacy for the Exercise of Public Power|152
2|1 Legitimacy in Connection to Unilateral Decision Making|153
3|1.1 Unilateral Decisions|153
3|1.2 Legitimacy|153
3|1.3 Trust|155
2|2 Legality and Legitimacy|156
3|2.1 The Chain of Legitimation|156
3|2.2 Administrative Law|158
3|2.3 Interpretation|158
3|2.4 Concluding Remarks|158
2|3 Responsibility and Legitimacy|159
3|3.1 Duties and Consequences|159
3|3.2 Duties|159
4|3.2.1 Open the Case|159
4|3.2.2 The Question of Law|160
4|3.2.3 Fact-Finding|160
5|3.2.3.1 Collecting Facts|160
5|3.2.3.2 Evaluating Proofs|160
5|3.2.3.3 Standard of Proof and Burden of Proof|161
4|3.2.4 Principles|161
5|3.2.4.1 Independence|161
5|3.2.4.2 Impartiality and Objectivity|162
4|3.2.5 Defence Rights|163
3|3.3 Consequences|164
3|3.4 Concluding Remarks|164
2|4 Judicial Review and Legitimacy|165
3|4.1 Unilateral Decisions and Judicial Review|165
3|4.2 Administrative Law Court|165
3|4.3 Civil Law Court|166
3|4.4 Penal Law Court|167
3|4.5 ECtHR and ECtJ|168
3|4.6 Concluding Remarks|168
2|5 Promoting Legitimacy in Administrative Law|169
2|References|171
1|Judicial Integrity and Judicial Independence: Two Sides of the Same Coin|173
2|1 Introduction|173
2|2 Key Elements of Judicial Independence: A Pedagogical, Yet Necessary Reminder of the Existing Standards|175
2|3 Are Judicial Integrity and Judicial Independence Under Threat?|179
2|4 Trends and Conclusions|184
1|An International Mechanism of Accountability for Adjudicating Corporate Violations of Human Rights? Problems and Perspectives|186
2|1 Introduction: The Rise of the Business and Human Rights Agenda|186
2|2 The Enforcement Mechanism of Corporate Violations of Human Rights of the Zero Draft Legally Binding Instrument on Business a...|188
3|2.1 The Nature of the National Implementation Mechanisms|189
3|2.2 Tasks and Functions of National Implementation Mechanisms|190
2|3 A Step Further: Is an International Court on Business and Human Rights Desirable?|193
2|4 Is an International Court on Business and Human Rights Feasible?|195
2|5 What Form Might the Mechanism Take?|197
3|5.1 The International Court of Justice Model|197
3|5.2 The Human Rights Regional Court Model|197
3|5.3 The International Criminal Court Model|199
2|6 Conclusions|201
2|References|201
1|Legal Basis for the Establishment of International Courts|203
2|1 Preliminary Remarks|203
2|2 International Courts and Tribunals: International Bodies or Organisations?|206
2|3 The Establishment of International Courts in Treaties and Outside of Treaties|209
2|4 Concluding Remarks|212
2|References|212
1|Judicial Review and Life Imprisonment|214
2|1 Introduction|215
2|2 In Which Cases Should De Jure and Therefore De Facto Irreducible Life Imprisonment Be Described?|215
2|3 Does Life Imprisonment Exist in Andorra?|216
2|4 Does Life Imprisonment Exist in the Six of the Seven States with No Constitutional References to Either Amnesty or Pardon Bu...|216
2|5 How to Deal with States Providing Life Imprisonment Without Parole and, Especially, with Reference to the Pardon Power?|217
2|6 With Reference to Council of Europe, Who Has the Power of Pardon in the States with Life Imprisonment Without Parole?|219
2|7 Which Are the Possibilities for Judicial Review As Far As Pardon Power Is Concerned?|219
2|8 Why Are the Possibilities of Judicial Review So Relevant with Reference to the Pardon Power?|220
2|9 Life Imprisonment and the Minister´s Role|220
2|10 Life Imprisonment, the Purposes of the Penalties and the Minister´s Role|222
2|11 Relevant Constitutional Court´s Judgements|223
2|12 Conclusion|224
2|References|225
1|Anti-Constitutional Constitutionalism: Minority Against Minority (Its Impact on International Law)|226
2|References|232
1|Human Rights Due Diligence in International Law: Where Do We Go from Here?|233
2|1 Introduction|234
2|2 Human Rights Due Diligence: In Search of a Concept|234
2|3 Domestic HRDD Legislation: The Trend to Harden Due Diligence Obligations|236
3|3.1 France|237
3|3.2 Germany|238
3|3.3 The Netherlands|239
3|3.4 Switzerland|240
3|3.5 Preliminary Conclusion|241
2|4 International HRDD Legislation: The Conflict Minerals Regulation as a Case Study|242
3|4.1 Context|242
3|4.2 Legislative Procedure|243
3|4.3 Content|245
3|4.4 Preliminary Conclusion|246
2|5 The Case for International HRDD Legislation in the Garment Sector|248
3|5.1 Characteristics|248
3|5.2 The EU Flagship Initiative on the Garment Sector: Its Origins and Developments|250
3|5.3 Preliminary Conclusion: Recommendations and Lessons Learned|252
2|6 Conclusion|255
2|References|256
2|Book Chapters|256
2|Journal Articles|256
2|Policy Documents|257
2|Online Sources|258
2|Others|259
1|International Courts and Tribunals as Determiners of the Law on State Responsibility|260
2|1 Introduction|260
2|2 ARSIWA as a Soft Regulation of the State Responsibility|261
2|3 Determination of Rules on SR by International Courts and Tribunals: The Role of ARSIWA|263
3|3.1 Determination of Rules of Law as a Function of International Courts and Tribunals|263
3|3.2 International Courts and Tribunals as Determiners of Customary Law on SR|265
4|3.2.1 Traditional Approach to Customary International Law (CIL)|265
4|3.2.2 The ARSIWA as Traditionally Perceived CIL|267
5|3.2.2.1 Before the Adoption of ARSIWA|267
5|3.2.2.2 After the Adoption of the ARSIWA|269
4|3.2.3 ARSIWA as an Expression of Modern Concepts of CIL or Judicial Precedents|270
5|3.2.3.1 Modern Concept of CIL|270
5|3.2.3.2 Judicial Decisions as Precedents|272
5|3.2.3.3 Non-traditional Approach to the ARSIWA: Between Modern Custom and Precedent|273
2|4 Case for Convention on State Responsibility for Internationally Wrongful Acts|275
3|4.1 General Remark|275
3|4.2 No Further Action on SR|276
3|4.3 Convention Yes, But Not Yet|277
3|4.4 Convention: Yes|277
3|4.5 Declaration as an Alternative or First Step to Convention|278
3|4.6 Assessing Options. Conclusions|279
2|References|281
1|In Search of the Optimal Court Administration Model for New Democracies|283
2|References|290
1|How `Liberal´ Democracies Attack(ed) Judicial Independence: An Anecdote from De Gaulle´s France|292
2|1 Introduction|292
2|2 Judicial Independence in the 1960s|293
3|2.1 The Anecdote|295
3|2.2 The Reactions to the `Forced Retirement´|297
2|3 Lessons for Today?|299
2|References|300
1|Powers Conferred Upon the EU and the Powers of the Court of Justice: The Protection Afforded to Same-Sex Couples in a Stable R...|302
2|1 The Case Law of the European Court of Human Rights on the Protection of Same-Sex Couples´ Rights|302
2|2 The Court of Justice´s Position|304
2|3 Italian Case Law|306
2|4 The Coman Case|308
2|5 Conclusions|310
2|References|311
1|Internal Organisation of Regional Human Rights Courts: The European Court of Human Rights and the Inter-American Court of Huma...|313
2|1 Introduction|313
2|2 The Jurisdiction of the Courts|314
3|2.1 The European Court of Human Rights|314
3|2.2 The Inter-American Court of Human Rights|315
2|3 The Composition of the Courts|316
3|3.1 The ECtHR|316
3|3.2 The IACtHR|317
2|4 The Registry/Secretariat|318
3|4.1 The ECtHR|318
3|4.2 The IACtHR|320
2|5 The Courts´ Workload|321
2|6 Procedure and Working Methods|322
3|6.1 The ECtHR|322
3|6.2 The IACtHR|326
2|7 Conclusion|329
2|Reference|329
1|The Notion of Judicial Independence: Impartiality and Effectiveness of Judges|330
2|1 The Role of Judicial Independence|330
2|2 European Regulations and Documents|333
2|3 Standards to Determine Judicial Independence at the European Court of Human Rights|337
2|4 Quality of Justice: Predictability and Stability of Judicial Decisions|340
2|5 Conclusion|342
2|References|342
1|Disciplinary Liability of a Judge for a Legal Error: A Threat to Judicial Independence?|343
2|1 Introduction|343
2|2 Immunity from Disciplinary Liability for the Substance of Judicial Decisions|344
2|3 Searching for the Limits of Immunity from Disciplinary Liability for a Legal Error|345
2|4 The Limits of Immunity for a Legal Error: French Experience|345
2|5 The Limits of Immunity for a Legal Error: The US Experience|347
2|6 The US Case Law on Elements of a Legal Error Amounting to a Disciplinary Offence|348
2|7 The Limits of Immunity for a Legal Error: Raising the Discussion on to the International Level|351
2|8 Concluding Observations|352
2|References|354
1|Institutional Communication as a Means to Strengthen the Legitimacy of Constitutional Courts|356
2|1 Introduction|356
2|2 Legitimacy as a ``Position-Based Reward´´ and the Emergence of Communicative Needs|359
2|3 The Quest for Simplification in Drafting Judgments|362
2|4 Official Comments to Judgments|365
2|5 Judgment Summaries|366
2|6 The Use of Social Media|368
2|7 The Use of Foreign Languages|369
2|8 Final Remarks|370
2|References|371
1|Third Parties Involved in International Litigation Proceedings. What Are the Challenges for the ECHR?|373
2|1 Foreword|373
2|2 Introduction|374
2|3 Intervening Before the Court, a Right or a Possibility?|375
3|3.1 The Right to Intervene|375
4|3.1.1 High Contracting States Whose National Is an Applicant|375
4|3.1.2 Council of Europe Human Rights Commissioner|376
3|3.2 The Conditional Ability to Intervene|377
4|3.2.1 Third States|377
4|3.2.2 Third Parties Concerned: amici curiae and Parties with a Stake in the Proceedings|378
2|4 Intervention by Original Parties to the Domestic Proceedings|379
3|4.1 Due Process As the Foundation|379
3|4.2 Third-Party Interventions Within Various Domestic Legal Systems and in the European Union|379
3|4.3 Implementing an Actual Right to Intervene at the Court|381
4|4.3.1 Identifying ``Any Persons Concerned´´|382
4|4.3.2 A Practical Problem: The Reopening of Domestic Proceedings|384
4|4.3.3 The Solutions: An Effective Right to Intervene|386
4|4.3.4 The Extent of Third Parties´ Litigation Rights|387
2|References|388
1|The Judicial Path to European Constitutionalism: The Role of the National Judge in the Multi-Level Dialogue|390
2|1 The ``Judicial Path´´ to European Integration|390
3|1.1 The Role of the ratio decidendi in the EU and ECHR Legal Orders|393
3|1.2 The Result-Oriented Approach of the ECHR Legal Order|394
3|1.3 The Para-Legislative Power of the ECJ|396
3|1.4 The Teleological-Orientation of the EU Legal Order: l´effet utile|398
3|1.5 The Cultural Impact of the European Non-discrimination Principle on the Judicial Practice|401
3|1.6 The Cultural Impact of the Balancing Test|403
3|1.7 The Ordinary Judge of European Law|404
2|References|407
1|Protecting the Independence of International Judges: Current Practice and Recommendations|408
2|1 Introduction|409
2|2 Overview of the Selection and Status of Judges at International Tribunals|409
3|2.1 International Court of Justice (``ICJ´´)|409
4|2.1.1 Selection|409
4|2.1.2 Safeguards for Independence (Immunity, etc.)|410
3|2.2 International Criminal Court (``ICC´´)|411
4|2.2.1 Selection|411
4|2.2.2 Safeguards for Independence (Immunity, etc.)|411
3|2.3 European Court of Human Rights (``ECtHR´´)|412
4|2.3.1 Selection|412
4|2.3.2 Safeguards for Independence (Immunity, etc.)|413
3|2.4 European Court of Justice (``ECJ´´ or ``CJEU´´)|413
4|2.4.1 Selection|413
4|2.4.2 Safeguards for Independence (Immunity, etc.)|414
3|2.5 Inter-American Court of Human Rights (``IACtHR´´)|414
4|2.5.1 Selection|414
4|2.5.2 Safeguards for Independence (Immunity, etc.)|415
2|3 Issues Surrounding the Independence of International Judges|416
3|3.1 Lack of Transparency or Regulation in Nomination and Election Processes|416
3|3.2 Perceived-or Real-National Bias of International Judges|418
3|3.3 Interference or Influence by National Government|420
2|4 Suggestions and Recommendations|422
3|4.1 Checks and Balances in the Selection of Judges|422
3|4.2 Transparency in the Nomination and Election Processes|424
3|4.3 Removal and Discipline of Judges|426
3|4.4 Re-election or Re-nomination of Judges|427
3|4.5 Financial and Job Security for Judges During and Post-mandate|428
3|4.6 Extrajudicial Activity|430
3|4.7 Immunity|431
3|4.8 Other Issues|433
2|5 Conclusion|434
2|References|434
1|The General Court of the European Union: Characteristic, Competences and Reform|439
2|1 Introduction|439
2|2 Genesis and History of the General Court|440
2|3 The Reform of the General Court|443
2|4 Implementation of the General Court´s Reform|447
2|5 Organization of the General Court at Present and Prospects|448
2|6 Characteristic of the Jurisdiction of the General Court|452
2|7 Access to the General Court in View of Art. 47 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights|454
2|8 Jurisdictional Competences of the General Court in View of Art. 47 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights|456
2|9 Conclusions|459
2|References|459
1|European Soft-Law and Organization of National Judiciaries|460
2|1 Soft-Law Instruments in the System of the Legal Sources|460
2|2 European Soft-Law Related to the Organization of National Judiciaries|461
2|3 The Recommendation n. (2010) 12 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States of the Council of Europe on Judges: Independe...|464
2|4 European Judicial Systems: Efficiency and Quality of Justice. The Evaluation Process of the European Commission for Efficien...|465
2|5 Conclusions|466
2|References|466
1|Individual Religious Liberty Under Article 9 and Identity as Dignity|467
2|1 Introduction|467
2|2 The Nature of the Freedom of Religion Argument: A Matter of Identity|469
2|3 Freedom of Religion as Identity: Social and Legal Consequences (the Road to Identity Conflicts)|473
2|4 Where All Conduct (Dictated by Identity) Can Be ``Manifestation of Religion´´ the Potential for Conflict Further Increases. ...|477
2|5 Conscience Wars Facilitated by Identity Based Freedom of Religion|480
3|5.1 Broadening Conscience|481
3|5.2 Tolerance|484
3|5.3 Conscience War and Intolerance|485
3|5.4 The Solution of Tolerance|488
2|6 Conclusion|490
2|References|491
1|The Popular Sovereignty and Its Constitutional Limits: The European Court of Human Rights as the Last Resto for Avoiding the B...|492
2|1 Postface|499
1|Reflections on Contemporary Issues of Judicial Independence|502
2|1 Introduction|502
2|2 The Basic Values of the Judicial System|504
3|2.1 Judicial Accountability|507
3|2.2 The Principle of Fair Reflection|508
3|2.3 Constitutional Protection of the Judiciary|511
3|2.4 Judicial Independence and Judicial Appointments|512
2|3 Constitutional Culture and Judicial Appointments: Illustrative Case of Judicial Appointments India|515
2|4 Guiding Principles Regarding Permissible Executive and Legislative Role in Matters Relevant to Judiciary|518
3|4.1 Reviewing and Renewing Judicial Tenure|523
3|4.2 Judicial Self-Governing in Court Administration|525
3|4.3 Universality vs. Particularity|527
2|References|532
2|Books|532
2|Journal Articles|532
2|Chapters from Books|533
2|International Standards and Declarations|534
2|Electronic Articles|534
2|Court Decisions: ECtHR|535
2|Court Decisions: Germany|535
2|Court Decisions: India|536
2|Court Decisions: Israel|536
2|Court Decisions: Poland|536
2|Court Decisions: Scotland|536
2|Court Decisions: UK|536
2|Legislation: Canada|536
2|Legislation: Israel|537
2|Legislation: Scotland|537
2|Legislation: UK|537
1|The Subjective Right of Judges to Independence: Some Reflexions on the Interpretation of Article 6, Para. 1 of the ECHR|538
2|1 Preliminary Remarks|538
2|2 Judicial Independence in the Court´s Case-Law Under Article 6 § 1 of the Convention: The Right of Persons Involved in Court ...|540
2|3 The Non-binding International Texts: Judicial Independence Includes the Judge´s Subjective Right to Independence|542
2|4 The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the American Convention on Human Rights: Essentially the Same W...|542
2|5 The Case-Law of the Human Rights Committee: Highlighting the Judge´s Right to Independence|543
2|6 The Case-Law of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights: From the Right to an Independent Judge to the Judge´s Right to Ind...|544
2|7 Towards a Subjective Right to Judicial Independence, Protected by the Convention?|545
2|References|547
2|Legal Sources|547
1|The United Nations´ Internal Justice System and Fair Trial Rights of International Staff Members in Disciplinary Proceedings|549
2|1 Introduction|549
2|2 Genesis of the (New) Internal Justice System of the United Nations|550
2|3 Jurisdictional Scope of UNDT and UNAT|553
2|4 Fair Trial Rights in the Context of Disciplinary Proceedings: An Overview|557
2|5 ECHR Fair Trial´s Standards and the UN Disciplinary Framework|562
2|6 Conclusion|565
2|References|566
2|Articles|566
2|Electronic Resources|566
2|United Nations Internal Justice System|566
2|European Court of Human Rights|566
2|International Labor Organisation Administrative Tribunal|567
1|The Role of the Proportionality Test in the Workplace Surveillance Field|568
2|1 Workplace Surveillance and Workers´ Dignity|568
2|2 The Balancing Test and Role of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)|570
2|3 A `Different Weight in the Future´ for Employee´s Protection|574
2|4 The ``Reasonable Expectation Test´´ in the ECtHR Judgements|574
2|5 Hidden `Defensive´ Surveillance|579
2|References|583
1|International Arbitration in the Adjudication System of a State Party to the European Convention on Human Rights|585
2|1 Introduction: International Arbitration|585
2|2 International Commercial Arbitration|586
3|2.1 Definition and Legal Nature|586
3|2.2 Features of International Commercial Arbitration|588
4|2.2.1 Neutrality and Expertise of Arbiters|588
4|2.2.2 Procedural Flexibility|588
4|2.2.3 Confidentiality|589
4|2.2.4 Speed of the Proceedings and Enforceability of the Arbitral Award|589
3|2.3 ECtHR and Arbitration|591
2|3 Investor-State Arbitration|593
3|3.1 Particularities of Investor-State Arbitration|593
3|3.2 ECtHR and Investor-State Arbitration|597
2|4 Conclusion|600
2|References|601
2|Journals and Articles|601
2|Books and Chapters|601
2|Online Publications|601
2|Court Cases|603
1|The Administrative Tribunal of the Council of Europe: Some Observations with Regard to Procedural and Substantive Guarantees|604
2|1 Introduction|604
2|2 Structure and Functioning of the Tribunal|605
2|3 Procedural Guarantees and Shortcomings|606
3|3.1 Standing|607
4|3.1.1 Staff Members or Candidates|607
4|3.1.2 Staff Associations and Trade Unions|608
4|3.1.3 Third Parties|610
4|3.1.4 Political Organs or Representatives of the Organisation|610
3|3.2 Costs and Legal Aid|611
3|3.3 Procedural Guarantees|612
4|3.3.1 Disclosure of Documents: Equality of Arms and Adversarial Proceedings|612
4|3.3.2 Anonymity|613
4|3.3.3 Oral and Public Hearings|614
2|4 Substantive Guarantees|614
3|4.1 Sources of Law|614
3|4.2 Power to Establish Facts|617
3|4.3 Burden of Proof|619
2|5 Conclusion|622
2|References|622
1|Advisory Opinions of the European Court of Human Rights: Do National Judges Really Need This New Forum of Dialogue?|623
2|1 A Handful of Introductory and Terminological Comments|623
2|2 Judicial Dialogue Before the Entry into Force of Protocol No. 16|625
2|3 Protocol No. 16 as a Platform of a sensu stricto Judicial Dialogue|628
3|3.1 The Optional Nature of Requesting an Advisory Opinion|630
3|3.2 The Non-binding Nature of Advisory Opinions|631
3|3.3 Procedural Framework of Considering a Request and the Possibility of a Genuine Dialogue|632
2|4 The Impact of Advisory Opinions on the Courts of Countries Which Are Not Parties to Protocol No. 16|635
2|5 Conclusions|636
2|References|637
1|Judicial and Non-Judicial Elements in the Enforcement Mechanism of the European Convention on Human Rights|639
2|1 National Legal Systems|640
2|2 General International Law|643
2|3 The Text of the European Convention on Human Rights|645
2|4 Practice Under the Convention|649
2|5 The Object of the Proceedings Before the European Court of Human Rights|652
2|6 The Role of Committee of Ministers and of the Respondent State|654
2|7 Conclusion|655
2|References|658
1|Transnational Law´s Legitimacy Challenge for International Courts|659
2|1 Introduction|659
2|2 Sociology of Legitimacy in Transnational Law|660
2|3 International Courts and Transnational Legitimacy|665
2|4 Concluding Remarks|668
2|References|669
1|Vincent Anthony De Gaetano|7
1|Contents|9
1|The Independence of the Judiciary in Strasbourg Judicial Disciplinary Case Law: Judges as Applicants and National Judicial Cou...|13
2|1 Introduction|14
2|2 The Purview of This Chapter|15
2|3 The Dramatis Personæ: Applicant Judges|16
3|3.1 A Typology of Disciplinary Proceedings Instituted Against Applicant Judges|17
4|3.1.1 Where Applicant Judges Won the Complaint|17
5|3.1.1.1 Violated Provisions of the ECHR|18
5|3.1.1.2 Respondent States Responsible for a Violation of the Convention|19
5|3.1.1.3 Disciplinary Sanctions Imposed Upon Applicant Judges|19
5|3.1.1.4 National Disciplinary Institutions for Applicant Judges|20
5|3.1.1.5 National Reviewing Bodies for Applicant Judges|21
5|3.1.1.6 Partial Reparation for Applicant Judges in Terms of Article 41 ECHR|23
5|3.1.1.7 Legal Obligation on Respondent States to Put an End to a Breach of the ECHR and Afford Restitutio in Integrum in Terms...|24
2|4 The Pre-Vilho Eskelinen and Others v. Finland ECtHR Position|25
3|4.1 No Access to a Court in Employment Decisions Relating to Civil Servants|25
3|4.2 Civil Servants and Judges as Part of the Public Service|26
3|4.3 Legitimate Limitation of Conventional Rights on Public Servants|27
3|4.4 The Post-Vilho Eskelinen and Others v. Finland ECtHR Position|27
2|5 Confirmed ECtHR Violations of Article 6(1) ECHR in Relation to Applicant Judges|27
2|6 Confirmed Violations of Other ECHR Provisions in Relation to Applicant Judges|28
2|7 Pertinent Principles Enunciated by the Strasbourg Court in Cases Instituted by Applicant Judges|28
3|7.1 Rule of Law|29
3|7.2 Separation of Powers|29
3|7.3 Independence of the Judiciary|30
3|7.4 Convention Rights Apply Also to Public Servants|30
2|8 Appearance of Personal Bias|30
3|8.1 Making an Initial Appraisal of Guilt and Subsequently Hearing the Disciplinary Case: Prejudice Through Objective Impartial...|31
3|8.2 Objective Impartiality Through the Appearance of Personal Bias: National Law Disallowing Judicial Withdrawal|31
3|8.3 Appearance of Personal Bias: Prejudice Through Subjective Impartiality|31
3|8.4 Prejudice Through Subjective and Objective Impartiality|32
2|9 HCJ Structural Deficiencies Evinced from Strasbourg Case Law|32
3|9.1 Difficulties Posed by NJC´s Composition|33
3|9.2 Reviewing Authority Being Hierarchically Subordinate to the NJC Disciplinary Body of First Instance|34
3|9.3 Manner of Appointment of the Judiciary on NJCs|34
3|9.4 NJC Members´ Dependence on Primary Employer|34
3|9.5 The Position of Ex Officio NJC Members|34
3|9.6 Prosecutor General´s Involvement as an Ex Officio NJC Member|35
3|9.7 Requirement for Substantial Judicial Representation on Judicial Disciplinary Bodies|35
3|9.8 Lack of a Tribunal Established by Law Due to an Illegitimate Set Up of a Judicial Disciplinary Body|35
3|9.9 Lack of Due Consideration for the Proportionality of the Sanction|36
3|9.10 Incompatible Interference with Domestic Law|36
3|9.11 Lack of Forseeability|36
3|9.12 No Protection Against Arbitrariness|36
3|9.13 No Legal Certainty Due to Lack of a Limitation Period|36
3|9.14 No Legal Certainty for Applicant´s Dismissal at the Plenary Meeting of Parliament|37
3|9.15 Inadequate Time and Facilities for Defence Preparation|37
2|10 Other Human Rights´ Infringements by NJCs|37
3|10.1 Insufficiency of Reviewing Powers|37
3|10.2 Lack of a Provision of a Public Hearing|38
3|10.3 Procedural Unfairness and Unequality of Arms|38
3|10.4 Excessive Length of Proceedings|38
3|10.5 Breach of an Applicant Judge´s Privacy: Disproportionality and Arbitrariness|39
3|10.6 Breach of an Applicant Judge´s Freedom of Expression: Disproportionality of the Inflicted Sanction: Judge´s Right to Expr...|40
3|10.7 Breach of an Applicant Judge´s Right to an Effective Remedy|41
2|11 Conclusion|41
3|11.1 Recommendation for Further Study on the Subject Under Review|41
3|11.2 Recommendations for Adoption by Council of Europe Member States|43
2|References|44
1|The Selection of Judges and Advocate-General at the Court of Justice of the European Union: The Role of the Panel Established ...|45
2|1 Introduction|45
2|2 The Establishment of the Advisory Panel|47
3|2.1 The Process of Establishment|47
3|2.2 A Brief Comparison with the Advisory Panel Established by the Committee of Minister of the Council of Europe|48
2|3 The Composition and the Activities of the Panel|49
2|4 The Need for More Transparency|51
2|5 Concluding Remarks|55
2|References|56
2|Further Reading|56
1|The Fair Trial as a Guarantee of the Administrative Procedure|58
2|1 Introduction|58
2|2 Supranational Guarantees for Fair Trial|59
2|3 Engel Criteria and the Essentially Afflictive Nature of the Sanctions Imposed by the Financial Market Regulation Authorities|60
2|4 From the French COB and Commission Bancaire Cases to the Italian Grande Stevens|64
2|5 The So-Called Full Jurisdiction and the Problem of the Ex Post Compensation|67
2|References|70
1|Judicial Independence: Constitutional Principle or Human Right?|74
2|1 Introduction|74
2|2 The Requirement for Judicial Independence and Its Conditions|77
3|2.1 The Human Rights Discourse in Favour of Impartiality|77
3|2.2 The Link Between Impartiality and Independence|78
2|3 The Constitutional Judicial Function in the Separation of Powers|78
3|3.1 The Difficulty in Determining the Position of the Judicial Function|79
3|3.2 The Possible Confusion Between Separation and Independence|80
2|4 The Specific Case of France|81
3|4.1 An Informal Judicial Function|81
3|4.2 A Mixture of Legal Principles|82
2|References|84
1|The Role of the European Associations and Organisations of Judges in Promoting and Safeguarding the Judicial Independence|85
2|1 Introduction|85
2|2 The Importance of the Principle of Judicial Independence|86
3|2.1 The International Documents Regarding Principle of Judicial Independence|86
3|2.2 The Safeguards of Judicial Independence|88
2|3 The Organisations Providing the Judicial Training|90
3|3.1 European Judicial Training Network (EJTN)|91
3|3.2 The European Programme for Human Rights Education for Legal Professionals (HELP)|92
3|3.3 The International Organization for Judicial Training (IOJT)|93
2|4 The Importance of the Judicial Associations and Organisations on the European Level|94
3|4.1 European Association of Judges (EAJ)|94
3|4.2 International Association of Judges (IAJ)|94
3|4.3 Magistrats Européens pour la Démocratie et les Libertés (MEDEL)|95
3|4.4 Consultative Council of European Judges (CCJE)|96
3|4.5 European Network of Councils of Judiciary (ENCJ)|97
3|4.6 Association of European Administrative Judges (AEAJ)|98
2|5 Instead of Summary|99
2|References|99
1|Independence of International Courts|101
2|1 Introduction: The Proliferation of International Judicial Bodies|101
2|2 International Judicial Independence|102
2|3 Difference Between National and International Judicial Independence|103
2|4 Ways of Influencing the Actions of International Courts|106
2|5 The Concept of Accountability As a Component of Legitimacy: The Relationship Between Independence and Accountability|109
2|6 Conclusion|111
2|References|112
1|Institutional Nature of International Courts and Its Impact on Their Competence|115
2|1 Conditions of International Cooperation|115
2|2 Common Values and Institutional Measures|116
2|3 Rigidity Factor|117
2|4 Institutional Problems of the European Court of Human Rights|118
2|5 Sources of Legitimacy of the Court and the Scope of Obligations of the Member States|120
2|6 Competence of the ECHR|121
2|7 Conclusion|122
1|Human Dignity as a Normative Concept. ``Dialogue´´ Between European Courts (ECtHR and CJEU)?|124
2|1 Human Dignity: From Semantic Ambiguity Towards a Normative Concept|124
2|2 Short Review of a Set of International Instruments with Reference to Dignity. Focus on a Bill of Rights of New Generation: T...|126
2|3 Human Dignity: From Lack of Explicit Reference in the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms to Increa...|129
2|4 The References to Dignity in the CJEU Case-Law|133
2|5 Embryonic Expressions of ``Dialogue´´ Between European Courts (ECtHR and CJEU)|137
2|References|138
1|The Dialogue Between the European Court of Human Rights and Domestic Authorities: Between Respect for Subsidiarity and Deferen...|140
2|1 Forms of Dialogue Within the European Convention on Human Rights System|142
3|1.1 Dialogue with the Judiciary|142
3|1.2 Dialogue with the Legislative Power|146
2|2 Impact of the Renewed Use of Subsidiarity on the European Court of Human Rights|147
3|2.1 Procedural Control and Increased Level of Abstraction in the Reasoning of the European Court of Human Rights|148
3|2.2 Legitimacy and Authority of the European Court of Human Rights|150
2|3 Conclusion|151
2|References|151
1|On Legitimacy for the Exercise of Public Power|152
2|1 Legitimacy in Connection to Unilateral Decision Making|153
3|1.1 Unilateral Decisions|153
3|1.2 Legitimacy|153
3|1.3 Trust|155
2|2 Legality and Legitimacy|156
3|2.1 The Chain of Legitimation|156
3|2.2 Administrative Law|158
3|2.3 Interpretation|158
3|2.4 Concluding Remarks|158
2|3 Responsibility and Legitimacy|159
3|3.1 Duties and Consequences|159
3|3.2 Duties|159
4|3.2.1 Open the Case|159
4|3.2.2 The Question of Law|160
4|3.2.3 Fact-Finding|160
5|3.2.3.1 Collecting Facts|160
5|3.2.3.2 Evaluating Proofs|160
5|3.2.3.3 Standard of Proof and Burden of Proof|161
4|3.2.4 Principles|161
5|3.2.4.1 Independence|161
5|3.2.4.2 Impartiality and Objectivity|162
4|3.2.5 Defence Rights|163
3|3.3 Consequences|164
3|3.4 Concluding Remarks|164
2|4 Judicial Review and Legitimacy|165
3|4.1 Unilateral Decisions and Judicial Review|165
3|4.2 Administrative Law Court|165
3|4.3 Civil Law Court|166
3|4.4 Penal Law Court|167
3|4.5 ECtHR and ECtJ|168
3|4.6 Concluding Remarks|168
2|5 Promoting Legitimacy in Administrative Law|169
2|References|171
1|Judicial Integrity and Judicial Independence: Two Sides of the Same Coin|173
2|1 Introduction|173
2|2 Key Elements of Judicial Independence: A Pedagogical, Yet Necessary Reminder of the Existing Standards|175
2|3 Are Judicial Integrity and Judicial Independence Under Threat?|179
2|4 Trends and Conclusions|184
1|An International Mechanism of Accountability for Adjudicating Corporate Violations of Human Rights? Problems and Perspectives|186
2|1 Introduction: The Rise of the Business and Human Rights Agenda|186
2|2 The Enforcement Mechanism of Corporate Violations of Human Rights of the Zero Draft Legally Binding Instrument on Business a...|188
3|2.1 The Nature of the National Implementation Mechanisms|189
3|2.2 Tasks and Functions of National Implementation Mechanisms|190
2|3 A Step Further: Is an International Court on Business and Human Rights Desirable?|193
2|4 Is an International Court on Business and Human Rights Feasible?|195
2|5 What Form Might the Mechanism Take?|197
3|5.1 The International Court of Justice Model|197
3|5.2 The Human Rights Regional Court Model|197
3|5.3 The International Criminal Court Model|199
2|6 Conclusions|201
2|References|201
1|Legal Basis for the Establishment of International Courts|203
2|1 Preliminary Remarks|203
2|2 International Courts and Tribunals: International Bodies or Organisations?|206
2|3 The Establishment of International Courts in Treaties and Outside of Treaties|209
2|4 Concluding Remarks|212
2|References|212
1|Judicial Review and Life Imprisonment|214
2|1 Introduction|215
2|2 In Which Cases Should De Jure and Therefore De Facto Irreducible Life Imprisonment Be Described?|215
2|3 Does Life Imprisonment Exist in Andorra?|216
2|4 Does Life Imprisonment Exist in the Six of the Seven States with No Constitutional References to Either Amnesty or Pardon Bu...|216
2|5 How to Deal with States Providing Life Imprisonment Without Parole and, Especially, with Reference to the Pardon Power?|217
2|6 With Reference to Council of Europe, Who Has the Power of Pardon in the States with Life Imprisonment Without Parole?|219
2|7 Which Are the Possibilities for Judicial Review As Far As Pardon Power Is Concerned?|219
2|8 Why Are the Possibilities of Judicial Review So Relevant with Reference to the Pardon Power?|220
2|9 Life Imprisonment and the Minister´s Role|220
2|10 Life Imprisonment, the Purposes of the Penalties and the Minister´s Role|222
2|11 Relevant Constitutional Court´s Judgements|223
2|12 Conclusion|224
2|References|225
1|Anti-Constitutional Constitutionalism: Minority Against Minority (Its Impact on International Law)|226
2|References|232
1|Human Rights Due Diligence in International Law: Where Do We Go from Here?|233
2|1 Introduction|234
2|2 Human Rights Due Diligence: In Search of a Concept|234
2|3 Domestic HRDD Legislation: The Trend to Harden Due Diligence Obligations|236
3|3.1 France|237
3|3.2 Germany|238
3|3.3 The Netherlands|239
3|3.4 Switzerland|240
3|3.5 Preliminary Conclusion|241
2|4 International HRDD Legislation: The Conflict Minerals Regulation as a Case Study|242
3|4.1 Context|242
3|4.2 Legislative Procedure|243
3|4.3 Content|245
3|4.4 Preliminary Conclusion|246
2|5 The Case for International HRDD Legislation in the Garment Sector|248
3|5.1 Characteristics|248
3|5.2 The EU Flagship Initiative on the Garment Sector: Its Origins and Developments|250
3|5.3 Preliminary Conclusion: Recommendations and Lessons Learned|252
2|6 Conclusion|255
2|References|256
2|Book Chapters|256
2|Journal Articles|256
2|Policy Documents|257
2|Online Sources|258
2|Others|259
1|International Courts and Tribunals as Determiners of the Law on State Responsibility|260
2|1 Introduction|260
2|2 ARSIWA as a Soft Regulation of the State Responsibility|261
2|3 Determination of Rules on SR by International Courts and Tribunals: The Role of ARSIWA|263
3|3.1 Determination of Rules of Law as a Function of International Courts and Tribunals|263
3|3.2 International Courts and Tribunals as Determiners of Customary Law on SR|265
4|3.2.1 Traditional Approach to Customary International Law (CIL)|265
4|3.2.2 The ARSIWA as Traditionally Perceived CIL|267
5|3.2.2.1 Before the Adoption of ARSIWA|267
5|3.2.2.2 After the Adoption of the ARSIWA|269
4|3.2.3 ARSIWA as an Expression of Modern Concepts of CIL or Judicial Precedents|270
5|3.2.3.1 Modern Concept of CIL|270
5|3.2.3.2 Judicial Decisions as Precedents|272
5|3.2.3.3 Non-traditional Approach to the ARSIWA: Between Modern Custom and Precedent|273
2|4 Case for Convention on State Responsibility for Internationally Wrongful Acts|275
3|4.1 General Remark|275
3|4.2 No Further Action on SR|276
3|4.3 Convention Yes, But Not Yet|277
3|4.4 Convention: Yes|277
3|4.5 Declaration as an Alternative or First Step to Convention|278
3|4.6 Assessing Options. Conclusions|279
2|References|281
1|In Search of the Optimal Court Administration Model for New Democracies|283
2|References|290
1|How `Liberal´ Democracies Attack(ed) Judicial Independence: An Anecdote from De Gaulle´s France|292
2|1 Introduction|292
2|2 Judicial Independence in the 1960s|293
3|2.1 The Anecdote|295
3|2.2 The Reactions to the `Forced Retirement´|297
2|3 Lessons for Today?|299
2|References|300
1|Powers Conferred Upon the EU and the Powers of the Court of Justice: The Protection Afforded to Same-Sex Couples in a Stable R...|302
2|1 The Case Law of the European Court of Human Rights on the Protection of Same-Sex Couples´ Rights|302
2|2 The Court of Justice´s Position|304
2|3 Italian Case Law|306
2|4 The Coman Case|308
2|5 Conclusions|310
2|References|311
1|Internal Organisation of Regional Human Rights Courts: The European Court of Human Rights and the Inter-American Court of Huma...|313
2|1 Introduction|313
2|2 The Jurisdiction of the Courts|314
3|2.1 The European Court of Human Rights|314
3|2.2 The Inter-American Court of Human Rights|315
2|3 The Composition of the Courts|316
3|3.1 The ECtHR|316
3|3.2 The IACtHR|317
2|4 The Registry/Secretariat|318
3|4.1 The ECtHR|318
3|4.2 The IACtHR|320
2|5 The Courts´ Workload|321
2|6 Procedure and Working Methods|322
3|6.1 The ECtHR|322
3|6.2 The IACtHR|326
2|7 Conclusion|329
2|Reference|329
1|The Notion of Judicial Independence: Impartiality and Effectiveness of Judges|330
2|1 The Role of Judicial Independence|330
2|2 European Regulations and Documents|333
2|3 Standards to Determine Judicial Independence at the European Court of Human Rights|337
2|4 Quality of Justice: Predictability and Stability of Judicial Decisions|340
2|5 Conclusion|342
2|References|342
1|Disciplinary Liability of a Judge for a Legal Error: A Threat to Judicial Independence?|343
2|1 Introduction|343
2|2 Immunity from Disciplinary Liability for the Substance of Judicial Decisions|344
2|3 Searching for the Limits of Immunity from Disciplinary Liability for a Legal Error|345
2|4 The Limits of Immunity for a Legal Error: French Experience|345
2|5 The Limits of Immunity for a Legal Error: The US Experience|347
2|6 The US Case Law on Elements of a Legal Error Amounting to a Disciplinary Offence|348
2|7 The Limits of Immunity for a Legal Error: Raising the Discussion on to the International Level|351
2|8 Concluding Observations|352
2|References|354
1|Institutional Communication as a Means to Strengthen the Legitimacy of Constitutional Courts|356
2|1 Introduction|356
2|2 Legitimacy as a ``Position-Based Reward´´ and the Emergence of Communicative Needs|359
2|3 The Quest for Simplification in Drafting Judgments|362
2|4 Official Comments to Judgments|365
2|5 Judgment Summaries|366
2|6 The Use of Social Media|368
2|7 The Use of Foreign Languages|369
2|8 Final Remarks|370
2|References|371
1|Third Parties Involved in International Litigation Proceedings. What Are the Challenges for the ECHR?|373
2|1 Foreword|373
2|2 Introduction|374
2|3 Intervening Before the Court, a Right or a Possibility?|375
3|3.1 The Right to Intervene|375
4|3.1.1 High Contracting States Whose National Is an Applicant|375
4|3.1.2 Council of Europe Human Rights Commissioner|376
3|3.2 The Conditional Ability to Intervene|377
4|3.2.1 Third States|377
4|3.2.2 Third Parties Concerned: amici curiae and Parties with a Stake in the Proceedings|378
2|4 Intervention by Original Parties to the Domestic Proceedings|379
3|4.1 Due Process As the Foundation|379
3|4.2 Third-Party Interventions Within Various Domestic Legal Systems and in the European Union|379
3|4.3 Implementing an Actual Right to Intervene at the Court|381
4|4.3.1 Identifying ``Any Persons Concerned´´|382
4|4.3.2 A Practical Problem: The Reopening of Domestic Proceedings|384
4|4.3.3 The Solutions: An Effective Right to Intervene|386
4|4.3.4 The Extent of Third Parties´ Litigation Rights|387
2|References|388
1|The Judicial Path to European Constitutionalism: The Role of the National Judge in the Multi-Level Dialogue|390
2|1 The ``Judicial Path´´ to European Integration|390
3|1.1 The Role of the ratio decidendi in the EU and ECHR Legal Orders|393
3|1.2 The Result-Oriented Approach of the ECHR Legal Order|394
3|1.3 The Para-Legislative Power of the ECJ|396
3|1.4 The Teleological-Orientation of the EU Legal Order: l´effet utile|398
3|1.5 The Cultural Impact of the European Non-discrimination Principle on the Judicial Practice|401
3|1.6 The Cultural Impact of the Balancing Test|403
3|1.7 The Ordinary Judge of European Law|404
2|References|407
1|Protecting the Independence of International Judges: Current Practice and Recommendations|408
2|1 Introduction|409
2|2 Overview of the Selection and Status of Judges at International Tribunals|409
3|2.1 International Court of Justice (``ICJ´´)|409
4|2.1.1 Selection|409
4|2.1.2 Safeguards for Independence (Immunity, etc.)|410
3|2.2 International Criminal Court (``ICC´´)|411
4|2.2.1 Selection|411
4|2.2.2 Safeguards for Independence (Immunity, etc.)|411
3|2.3 European Court of Human Rights (``ECtHR´´)|412
4|2.3.1 Selection|412
4|2.3.2 Safeguards for Independence (Immunity, etc.)|413
3|2.4 European Court of Justice (``ECJ´´ or ``CJEU´´)|413
4|2.4.1 Selection|413
4|2.4.2 Safeguards for Independence (Immunity, etc.)|414
3|2.5 Inter-American Court of Human Rights (``IACtHR´´)|414
4|2.5.1 Selection|414
4|2.5.2 Safeguards for Independence (Immunity, etc.)|415
2|3 Issues Surrounding the Independence of International Judges|416
3|3.1 Lack of Transparency or Regulation in Nomination and Election Processes|416
3|3.2 Perceived-or Real-National Bias of International Judges|418
3|3.3 Interference or Influence by National Government|420
2|4 Suggestions and Recommendations|422
3|4.1 Checks and Balances in the Selection of Judges|422
3|4.2 Transparency in the Nomination and Election Processes|424
3|4.3 Removal and Discipline of Judges|426
3|4.4 Re-election or Re-nomination of Judges|427
3|4.5 Financial and Job Security for Judges During and Post-mandate|428
3|4.6 Extrajudicial Activity|430
3|4.7 Immunity|431
3|4.8 Other Issues|433
2|5 Conclusion|434
2|References|434
1|The General Court of the European Union: Characteristic, Competences and Reform|439
2|1 Introduction|439
2|2 Genesis and History of the General Court|440
2|3 The Reform of the General Court|443
2|4 Implementation of the General Court´s Reform|447
2|5 Organization of the General Court at Present and Prospects|448
2|6 Characteristic of the Jurisdiction of the General Court|452
2|7 Access to the General Court in View of Art. 47 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights|454
2|8 Jurisdictional Competences of the General Court in View of Art. 47 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights|456
2|9 Conclusions|459
2|References|459
1|European Soft-Law and Organization of National Judiciaries|460
2|1 Soft-Law Instruments in the System of the Legal Sources|460
2|2 European Soft-Law Related to the Organization of National Judiciaries|461
2|3 The Recommendation n. (2010) 12 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States of the Council of Europe on Judges: Independe...|464
2|4 European Judicial Systems: Efficiency and Quality of Justice. The Evaluation Process of the European Commission for Efficien...|465
2|5 Conclusions|466
2|References|466
1|Individual Religious Liberty Under Article 9 and Identity as Dignity|467
2|1 Introduction|467
2|2 The Nature of the Freedom of Religion Argument: A Matter of Identity|469
2|3 Freedom of Religion as Identity: Social and Legal Consequences (the Road to Identity Conflicts)|473
2|4 Where All Conduct (Dictated by Identity) Can Be ``Manifestation of Religion´´ the Potential for Conflict Further Increases. ...|477
2|5 Conscience Wars Facilitated by Identity Based Freedom of Religion|480
3|5.1 Broadening Conscience|481
3|5.2 Tolerance|484
3|5.3 Conscience War and Intolerance|485
3|5.4 The Solution of Tolerance|488
2|6 Conclusion|490
2|References|491
1|The Popular Sovereignty and Its Constitutional Limits: The European Court of Human Rights as the Last Resto for Avoiding the B...|492
2|1 Postface|499
1|Reflections on Contemporary Issues of Judicial Independence|502
2|1 Introduction|502
2|2 The Basic Values of the Judicial System|504
3|2.1 Judicial Accountability|507
3|2.2 The Principle of Fair Reflection|508
3|2.3 Constitutional Protection of the Judiciary|511
3|2.4 Judicial Independence and Judicial Appointments|512
2|3 Constitutional Culture and Judicial Appointments: Illustrative Case of Judicial Appointments India|515
2|4 Guiding Principles Regarding Permissible Executive and Legislative Role in Matters Relevant to Judiciary|518
3|4.1 Reviewing and Renewing Judicial Tenure|523
3|4.2 Judicial Self-Governing in Court Administration|525
3|4.3 Universality vs. Particularity|527
2|References|532
2|Books|532
2|Journal Articles|532
2|Chapters from Books|533
2|International Standards and Declarations|534
2|Electronic Articles|534
2|Court Decisions: ECtHR|535
2|Court Decisions: Germany|535
2|Court Decisions: India|536
2|Court Decisions: Israel|536
2|Court Decisions: Poland|536
2|Court Decisions: Scotland|536
2|Court Decisions: UK|536
2|Legislation: Canada|536
2|Legislation: Israel|537
2|Legislation: Scotland|537
2|Legislation: UK|537
1|The Subjective Right of Judges to Independence: Some Reflexions on the Interpretation of Article 6, Para. 1 of the ECHR|538
2|1 Preliminary Remarks|538
2|2 Judicial Independence in the Court´s Case-Law Under Article 6 § 1 of the Convention: The Right of Persons Involved in Court ...|540
2|3 The Non-binding International Texts: Judicial Independence Includes the Judge´s Subjective Right to Independence|542
2|4 The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the American Convention on Human Rights: Essentially the Same W...|542
2|5 The Case-Law of the Human Rights Committee: Highlighting the Judge´s Right to Independence|543
2|6 The Case-Law of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights: From the Right to an Independent Judge to the Judge´s Right to Ind...|544
2|7 Towards a Subjective Right to Judicial Independence, Protected by the Convention?|545
2|References|547
2|Legal Sources|547
1|The United Nations´ Internal Justice System and Fair Trial Rights of International Staff Members in Disciplinary Proceedings|549
2|1 Introduction|549
2|2 Genesis of the (New) Internal Justice System of the United Nations|550
2|3 Jurisdictional Scope of UNDT and UNAT|553
2|4 Fair Trial Rights in the Context of Disciplinary Proceedings: An Overview|557
2|5 ECHR Fair Trial´s Standards and the UN Disciplinary Framework|562
2|6 Conclusion|565
2|References|566
2|Articles|566
2|Electronic Resources|566
2|United Nations Internal Justice System|566
2|European Court of Human Rights|566
2|International Labor Organisation Administrative Tribunal|567
1|The Role of the Proportionality Test in the Workplace Surveillance Field|568
2|1 Workplace Surveillance and Workers´ Dignity|568
2|2 The Balancing Test and Role of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)|570
2|3 A `Different Weight in the Future´ for Employee´s Protection|574
2|4 The ``Reasonable Expectation Test´´ in the ECtHR Judgements|574
2|5 Hidden `Defensive´ Surveillance|579
2|References|583
1|International Arbitration in the Adjudication System of a State Party to the European Convention on Human Rights|585
2|1 Introduction: International Arbitration|585
2|2 International Commercial Arbitration|586
3|2.1 Definition and Legal Nature|586
3|2.2 Features of International Commercial Arbitration|588
4|2.2.1 Neutrality and Expertise of Arbiters|588
4|2.2.2 Procedural Flexibility|588
4|2.2.3 Confidentiality|589
4|2.2.4 Speed of the Proceedings and Enforceability of the Arbitral Award|589
3|2.3 ECtHR and Arbitration|591
2|3 Investor-State Arbitration|593
3|3.1 Particularities of Investor-State Arbitration|593
3|3.2 ECtHR and Investor-State Arbitration|597
2|4 Conclusion|600
2|References|601
2|Journals and Articles|601
2|Books and Chapters|601
2|Online Publications|601
2|Court Cases|603
1|The Administrative Tribunal of the Council of Europe: Some Observations with Regard to Procedural and Substantive Guarantees|604
2|1 Introduction|604
2|2 Structure and Functioning of the Tribunal|605
2|3 Procedural Guarantees and Shortcomings|606
3|3.1 Standing|607
4|3.1.1 Staff Members or Candidates|607
4|3.1.2 Staff Associations and Trade Unions|608
4|3.1.3 Third Parties|610
4|3.1.4 Political Organs or Representatives of the Organisation|610
3|3.2 Costs and Legal Aid|611
3|3.3 Procedural Guarantees|612
4|3.3.1 Disclosure of Documents: Equality of Arms and Adversarial Proceedings|612
4|3.3.2 Anonymity|613
4|3.3.3 Oral and Public Hearings|614
2|4 Substantive Guarantees|614
3|4.1 Sources of Law|614
3|4.2 Power to Establish Facts|617
3|4.3 Burden of Proof|619
2|5 Conclusion|622
2|References|622
1|Advisory Opinions of the European Court of Human Rights: Do National Judges Really Need This New Forum of Dialogue?|623
2|1 A Handful of Introductory and Terminological Comments|623
2|2 Judicial Dialogue Before the Entry into Force of Protocol No. 16|625
2|3 Protocol No. 16 as a Platform of a sensu stricto Judicial Dialogue|628
3|3.1 The Optional Nature of Requesting an Advisory Opinion|630
3|3.2 The Non-binding Nature of Advisory Opinions|631
3|3.3 Procedural Framework of Considering a Request and the Possibility of a Genuine Dialogue|632
2|4 The Impact of Advisory Opinions on the Courts of Countries Which Are Not Parties to Protocol No. 16|635
2|5 Conclusions|636
2|References|637
1|Judicial and Non-Judicial Elements in the Enforcement Mechanism of the European Convention on Human Rights|639
2|1 National Legal Systems|640
2|2 General International Law|643
2|3 The Text of the European Convention on Human Rights|645
2|4 Practice Under the Convention|649
2|5 The Object of the Proceedings Before the European Court of Human Rights|652
2|6 The Role of Committee of Ministers and of the Respondent State|654
2|7 Conclusion|655
2|References|658
1|Transnational Law´s Legitimacy Challenge for International Courts|659
2|1 Introduction|659
2|2 Sociology of Legitimacy in Transnational Law|660
2|3 International Courts and Transnational Legitimacy|665
2|4 Concluding Remarks|668
2|References|669