File #2776: "2019_Book_DevelopingAnAppropriateContami.pdf"
Text
1|Preface and Acknowledgements|6
1|Contents|8
1|Selected Acronyms|15
1|List of Figures|17
1|List of Tables|18
1|Chapter 1: Introduction|19
2|Reference|25
1|Chapter 2: Status Quo of Land Contamination in China: Causes, Effects and Features|26
2|2.1 Introduction|26
2|2.2 Several Key Concepts|28
3|2.2.1 Contaminated Land|28
3|2.2.2 Soil Pollution and Land Contamination|28
2|2.3 Causes of Land Contamination in China|28
3|2.3.1 Agricultural Nonpoint Sources Pollution (NSP)|29
4|2.3.1.1 Wastewater Irrigation|29
4|2.3.1.2 Chemical Pesticides|31
4|2.3.1.3 Agricultural Film|33
4|2.3.1.4 Chemical Fertilizer|33
4|2.3.1.5 Livestock Waste|35
3|2.3.2 Heavy Metal Pollution|36
4|2.3.2.1 Cadmium|38
4|2.3.2.2 Mercury|39
4|2.3.2.3 Lead|40
4|2.3.2.4 Case Study: Guiyu, `The Most Toxic Place in the World´|42
3|2.3.3 Radioactive Pollution|44
3|2.3.4 Urban Land Contamination: Former Industry Sites|45
3|2.3.5 Other Sources|46
2|2.4 Effects of Present Land Contamination in China|47
3|2.4.1 Health Damage to People and Ecosystem|47
3|2.4.2 Tremendous Economic Loss|48
3|2.4.3 Endangered Food Security|49
3|2.4.4 Endangered Food Quality Safety|51
3|2.4.5 Endangered Social Stability|52
2|2.5 Conclusion|53
2|References|53
1|Chapter 3: The Regulatory Frameworks to Address Land Contamination in China|59
2|3.1 Introduction|59
2|3.2 The Institutional Framework of Environmental Legislation in China|60
3|3.2.1 Background Information|60
3|3.2.2 NPC|62
3|3.2.3 MEE|62
3|3.2.4 Relevant Ministries|64
3|3.2.5 EPBs|65
2|3.3 Regulatory Frameworks on Addressing Contaminated Land Issues|65
3|3.3.1 The 1982 Constitution|67
3|3.3.2 Environmental Protection Law 1989|68
3|3.3.3 Soil Contamination Law 2018|69
3|3.3.4 Other National Wide Laws and Regulations|70
4|3.3.4.1 Provisions on Solid Wastes Pollution Control|70
4|3.3.4.2 Provisions Relating to Atmospheric Environment Protection|71
4|3.3.4.3 Provisions on Land Resource and Agricultural Environment Protection|71
4|3.3.4.4 Provisions on Water Resource Protection|73
4|3.3.4.5 Provisions on Ecosystem Protection|73
3|3.3.5 Decrees|73
3|3.3.6 Local Legislation|75
4|3.3.6.1 Local Legislation: General Provisions|75
4|3.3.6.2 Specific Local Legislation on Contaminated Land Management|76
3|3.3.7 Environmental Standards|77
2|3.4 Existing Land Contamination Control Regimes|78
3|3.4.1 Land Contamination Monitoring Systems|79
3|3.4.2 Site Assessment and Reporting|80
3|3.4.3 Contaminated Land Treatment and Remediation|81
3|3.4.4 Land Contamination Liability Regime|82
4|3.4.4.1 Civil Liabilities|83
4|3.4.4.2 Administrative Liabilities|85
4|3.4.4.3 Criminal Liabilities|85
2|3.5 The Government´s Response|86
3|3.5.1 Scientific Outlook on Development and State Council Decisions|87
3|3.5.2 China´s Five-Year-Plan for National Economic and Social Development|88
3|3.5.3 Survey on Soil Pollution|88
3|3.5.4 Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Soil Pollution (2016)|89
3|3.5.5 National Environment and Health Action Plan (2007-2015)|90
2|3.6 Concluding Remarks|91
2|References|93
1|Chapter 4: Contaminated Land Regime Under the Soil Contamination Law of China 2018|95
2|4.1 Introduction|95
2|4.2 Statutory Definition of Soil Contamination|97
2|4.3 Institutional Design and Institutional Controls of China´s Contaminated Land Regime|97
3|4.3.1 Institutional Design|97
3|4.3.2 Institutional Controls|98
4|4.3.2.1 Soil Contamination Control Plan|98
4|4.3.2.2 Environmental Standards for Soil Contamination Risk Management and Control|99
4|4.3.2.3 Zoning Restrictions|99
4|4.3.2.4 Survey and Monitoring|100
4|4.3.2.5 Information Management|100
2|4.4 Risk Management and Control, and Remediation|101
3|4.4.1 General Requirements|102
3|4.4.2 Risk Management and Control: Soil Contamination Investigation|104
4|4.4.2.1 Triggers for Investigation|104
4|4.4.2.2 Enforcing Authorities of Investigation|106
4|4.4.2.3 Duty to Prepare Investigation Reports|108
3|4.4.3 Risk Management and Control: Risk Assessment|108
3|4.4.4 Risk Management and Control for Agricultural Land|109
3|4.4.5 Risk Management and Control for Construction Land|111
3|4.4.6 Contaminated Land Remediation|111
4|4.4.6.1 Remediation of Agricultural Land|111
4|4.4.6.2 Remediation of Construction Land|112
2|4.5 Liability Issues|113
3|4.5.1 Administrative Liabilities and Criminal Liabilities|113
3|4.5.2 Civil Liabilities|114
2|4.6 Financial Supports and Tax Incentives|115
3|4.6.1 General Request of the Funding Policy|116
3|4.6.2 Fund|116
3|4.6.3 Loans|117
3|4.6.4 Tax Incentives|117
2|4.7 Conclusion|118
2|References|119
1|Chapter 5: Contaminated Land Liability Scheme in the US: Lessons for China?|120
2|5.1 Overview|120
2|5.2 Operative Concepts of CERCLA Liability Scheme|121
3|5.2.1 The Liability Standard of CERCLA|121
4|5.2.1.1 Strict Liability|122
4|5.2.1.2 Joint and Several Liability|123
4|5.2.1.3 Retroactive Liability|124
3|5.2.2 Responsible Parties|125
4|5.2.2.1 Current Owners and Operators|126
5|Current Owners|126
5|Current Operators|128
4|5.2.2.2 Past Owners or Operators|130
4|5.2.2.3 Arranger|131
4|5.2.2.4 Transporters|132
3|5.2.3 Secondarily Liable Potentially Responsible Parties|133
4|5.2.3.1 Lenders|133
4|5.2.3.2 Corporations|135
5|Parent Companies and Other Shareholders|135
5|Directors, Officers and Employees|136
5|Engineers and Contractors|137
5|Successor Companies|137
5|Dissolved Corporations|138
5|Companies Operated by Other Companies|139
5|Fiduciaries, Estates and Beneficiaries|139
5|Federal, State and Local Governments|140
3|5.2.4 Triggers of Liability|140
4|5.2.4.1 Facility or Vessel|141
4|5.2.4.2 Release or Threatened Release|141
4|5.2.4.3 Hazardous Substance|142
4|5.2.4.4 Causing the Incurrence of Response Costs|143
3|5.2.5 Other Issues to Address the CERCLA Liability Mechanism|144
4|5.2.5.1 Recoverable Cost|144
4|5.2.5.2 Options for Cost Recovery|144
4|5.2.5.3 Limit of Liability|145
4|5.2.5.4 Defences to CERCLA Liability|145
2|5.3 Critique of the CERCLA Liability Scheme|147
3|5.3.1 Limited Coverage of Claims|148
3|5.3.2 Limit Statutory Defences|148
3|5.3.3 Neglected Fairness Issue|149
3|5.3.4 Continued Debate Over CERCLA´s Effectiveness|149
2|5.4 Criteria for an Ideal Liability System: Cost-Benefit Analysis|150
3|5.4.1 A Liability-Based Approach Should Generate Low Transaction Costs|151
3|5.4.2 A Liability Mechanism Should Balance Stakeholder Interactions|152
3|5.4.3 Fair Methods|153
3|5.4.4 Limitations of Cost-Benefit Analysis|154
2|5.5 Conclusion|155
2|References|156
1|Chapter 6: Contaminated Land Liability Regime in the UK: General Concerns for Developing Contaminated Land Liability System in...|158
2|6.1 Introduction|158
2|6.2 Liability Basis: Defining Contaminated Land|161
3|6.2.1 The Statutory Definition of Contaminated Land|161
3|6.2.2 Establishment of the Concept of `Pollutant Linkage´|162
3|6.2.3 The Concepts of `Substances´ and `Land´|162
3|6.2.4 Criteria for `Harm´ and the `Significant Possibility of Harm´|163
3|6.2.5 Stages for Identifying Liability|165
3|6.2.6 The Role of the Enforcing Authorities|166
2|6.3 Liability Regime for the Contaminated Land|167
3|6.3.1 Liable Parties: The Appropriate Person|167
4|6.3.1.1 The First Rank of Appropriate Persons: `Class A´|168
4|6.3.1.2 The Meaning of `Caused´ and `Knowingly Permitted´|169
3|6.3.2 The Second Rank of Appropriate Persons: `Class B´|171
3|6.3.3 Exclusions and Exemptions of Liability|173
4|6.3.3.1 Exemptions from Class A Liability|173
4|6.3.3.2 Exemptions from Class B Liability|175
3|6.3.4 The Liability Standard of Part IIA|176
4|6.3.4.1 Retrospective Liability|176
4|6.3.4.2 Modified Joint and Several Liability|177
2|6.4 Types of Appropriate Persons|179
3|6.4.1 Liability of Owners and Occupiers|179
3|6.4.2 Company´s Liability Associated with Contaminated Land|180
4|6.4.2.1 Company as Developers|181
4|6.4.2.2 Parent Companies, Other Shareholders and Affiliated Companies|182
4|6.4.2.3 Insolvent Companies|182
4|6.4.2.4 Companies in Liquidation|183
4|6.4.2.5 Insolvency Practitioners|183
4|6.4.2.6 Unincorporated Association|184
3|6.4.3 Banks, Other Lenders and Similar Entities|184
4|6.4.3.1 Banks and Other Lenders|184
4|6.4.3.2 Tenants|186
4|6.4.3.3 Trustees|186
4|6.4.3.4 Managing Agents|187
3|6.4.4 Environmental Consultants and Contractors|187
3|6.4.5 Local Authorities and Governmental Bodies|188
2|6.5 Conclusion|189
2|References|191
1|Chapter 7: Contaminated Land Remediation: Legal Issues and Recommendations for China|192
2|7.1 Introduction|192
2|7.2 Why Remediate Contaminated Land? Cost-Benefit Analysis for Remediation Decisions|195
3|7.2.1 Costs of Contaminated Land Remediation|196
3|7.2.2 Benefits of Contaminated Land Remediation|197
3|7.2.3 Cost-Benefit Analysis for Remediation Decision: Critical Remarks|198
2|7.3 How to Remediate Contaminated Sites? Legal Frameworks in the US and UK|199
3|7.3.1 Essential Issues of the Remediation Mechanism in the US|199
3|7.3.2 Blue Print for Remediation: National Contingency Plan (NCP)|200
3|7.3.3 Contaminated Sites Information Management Mechanism Under the CERCLA|201
4|7.3.3.1 Information Sources: Discovery of Contaminated Sites|201
4|7.3.3.2 Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act Information System (1987-2014) (CERCLIS)|202
4|7.3.3.3 Superfund Enterprise Management System (SEMS)|203
4|7.3.3.4 Contaminated Sites Investigation Under the CERCLA|204
3|7.3.4 Contaminated Sites Ranking and Listing Under the CERCLA|205
4|7.3.4.1 Hazard Ranking System (HRS)|205
4|7.3.4.2 Rules for Listing and Deleting Contaminated Sites|206
3|7.3.5 Authoritative Departments of Implementing Remediation|207
3|7.3.6 Essential Elements of the Remediation Mechanism in the UK|209
4|7.3.6.1 Back Ground Information|209
4|7.3.6.2 Remediation Objectives|209
4|7.3.6.3 Remediation Actions|210
4|7.3.6.4 Indictors for Sustainability Assessment of Remediation Options|211
2|7.4 Technological Issues Related to Contaminated Land Remediation in the US and UK|211
3|7.4.1 Remedial Technologies Applied in the US|211
4|7.4.1.1 Treatment Technology in General|211
4|7.4.1.2 Satutory Options for the Selection of Remedial Techologies|213
3|7.4.2 Remedial Technologies Applied in the UK|214
3|7.4.3 Review for Current Contaminated Land Remediation Mechanism|215
2|7.5 How Clean Is Clean? Questions on Contaminated Land Remediation Standards|217
3|7.5.1 Remediation Standards in the UK|218
4|7.5.1.1 The `Suitable for Use´ Approach|218
4|7.5.1.2 Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO)|220
3|7.5.2 Contaminated Land Cleanup Standards in the US|220
4|7.5.2.1 Applicable or Relevant and Appropriate Requirements (ARARs)|222
4|7.5.2.2 Future Land Use vs Multi-functionality Approach|223
2|7.6 Recommended Principles for Sustainable Contaminated Land Remediation in China|225
2|7.7 Conclusion|229
2|References|230
1|Chapter 8: The Role of Environmental Liability Insurance in Contaminated Land Legislation of China: Theories and Case Study|233
2|8.1 Introduction|233
2|8.2 Environmental Risk and Environmental Insurance|236
2|8.3 Functions of Environmental Insurance|236
2|8.4 Insurability of Contaminated Land Related Risks|238
2|8.5 Features of Environmental Insurance Policies|241
2|8.6 Contaminated Land Related Insurance in US and UK|242
3|8.6.1 Insurance Response to Environmental Liability in US|242
3|8.6.2 Insurance Response to Environmental Liability in UK|243
3|8.6.3 Types (Coverage) of Environmental Insurance|244
3|8.6.4 Changes and Developments|245
3|8.6.5 Appropriative Coverage of Insurance for Contaminated Land|246
4|8.6.5.1 Coverage in Brief|246
4|8.6.5.2 Primary Types of Coverage|246
4|8.6.5.3 Environmental-Impairment Liability Cover|247
4|8.6.5.4 Property Transfer Coverage|247
4|8.6.5.5 Off-site Liability Coverage|248
4|8.6.5.6 Remediation Stop-Loss/Cost-Cap Coverage|248
4|8.6.5.7 Homeowners, Contractors and Lenders Cover|249
4|8.6.5.8 Finite Risk Programs|250
4|8.6.5.9 Other Coverage|250
3|8.6.6 Trigger Issues|250
4|8.6.6.1 Actual Injury (Injury in Fact) Theory|251
4|8.6.6.2 Exposure Theory|251
4|8.6.6.3 Manifestation Theory|251
4|8.6.6.4 Continuous Trigger Theory|252
3|8.6.7 Stakeholder Analysis for Contaminated Land Related Environmental Insurance|252
2|8.7 Environmental Liability Insurance in China|254
3|8.7.1 Contemporary Environmental Liability Insurance in China|254
4|8.7.1.1 Legislative Development Before 2012|254
4|8.7.1.2 Legislative Development: From 2012 Onwards|256
3|8.7.2 Challenges Facing China|258
4|8.7.2.1 Gaps in the Legal Framework|258
4|8.7.2.2 Unclear Market Demand|258
4|8.7.2.3 Lack of Historical Loss Data|259
4|8.7.2.4 Lack of Underwriting Experience|259
4|8.7.2.5 Insufficient Legal Remedies|259
3|8.7.3 Case study: The First Environmental Insurance Case in China|260
2|8.8 Conclusion: Legislative Recommendations|261
2|References|262
1|Chapter 9: Financing Mechanisms for Contaminated Land Remediation and Redevelopment|265
2|9.1 Introduction|265
2|9.2 Contaminated Land Redevelopment Funding Mechanisms in the UK|268
3|9.2.1 Frameworks for Funding Mechanisms Under the Environmental Protection Act 1990|268
3|9.2.2 English Partnerships (Former) Operated Programs|269
3|9.2.3 Regional Development Agencies and the Single Regeneration Budget|270
3|9.2.4 Other Key Funding Programs|272
4|9.2.4.1 Supplementary Credit Approvals|272
4|9.2.4.2 Contaminated Land Capital Projects Program|273
4|9.2.4.3 Grant in Aid|274
4|9.2.4.4 European Regional Development Fund|274
2|9.3 Funding Mechanisms for Brownfield Redevelopment in the US|275
3|9.3.1 Federal and State Grants Under the EPA Brownfields Programs|275
3|9.3.2 The US Department of Housing and Urban Development´s Brownfields Grants|277
3|9.3.3 Brownfield Trust Funds|278
3|9.3.4 Real Estate Investment Trust (REIT)|279
3|9.3.5 Tax as Brownfield Financing Instruments|280
4|9.3.5.1 Federal Tax Incentives|280
4|9.3.5.2 State Tax Incentives|282
4|9.3.5.3 Review of the Tax Incentives|282
3|9.3.6 Designated Federal and State Clean-Up Funds|282
2|9.4 Comparison of US and UK Contaminated Land Funding Mechanisms|284
2|9.5 Main Concerns for Establishing Contaminated Land Funding Mechanisms in China|285
3|9.5.1 Objectives of Contaminated Land Funding Mechanisms|285
3|9.5.2 The Role of the Local Government|286
3|9.5.3 Key Factors for a Successful Contaminated Land Funding Mechanism|287
2|9.6 Conclusion|288
2|References|289
1|Chapter 10: Conclusion and Recommendations: A Comparative Review of China´s Contaminated Land Regime|292
2|10.1 Challenges and Problems Faced by China|292
2|10.2 A Reflection on China´s Contaminated Land Legal Frameworks Before 2018|293
3|10.2.1 Lack of a Directly Responsible Authority|293
3|10.2.2 Lack of Reliable Scientific Data|294
3|10.2.3 Lack of State and Local Resources to Handle Emergency Situations|294
3|10.2.4 Lack of a Single Scientific Director in Charge of Relevant Issues|295
3|10.2.5 Insensitivity of Local Authorities|295
2|10.3 A Comparative Review of China´s Contaminated Land Regime Under the Soil Pollution Law 2018|295
3|10.3.1 Defining Soil Contamination in China|295
3|10.3.2 Institutional Design and Controls for Soil Contamination Prevention and Control|296
3|10.3.3 Risk Management and Control and Remediation Mechanism|298
4|10.3.3.1 Problems of the Current `Risk Management and Control´ and Remediation Mechanism|298
4|10.3.3.2 Ways to Improve `Risk Management and Control´ and Remediation Mechanism in China|300
3|10.3.4 Liability Mechanism|302
3|10.3.5 Financial Mechanism|304
3|10.3.6 Public Participation in Contaminated Land Management|305
3|10.3.7 Conducting Environmental Education and Using Consultation for Contaminated Land Case|306
3|10.3.8 Public Interests Litigation on Contaminated Land Cases|306
3|10.3.9 NGO Capacity on Dealing with Land Contaminated Land Issue|307
2|References|308
1|Table of Cases|309
2|US Cases|309
2|UK Cases|312
2|China Cases|313
2|New Zealand Case|313
1|Table of Legislation|314
2|Legislation in China|314
2|US Legislation|318
2|UK Legislation|318
2|Dutch Legislation|319
2|EU Legislation|319
1|Appendices|320
2|Appendix I: Selected Terms and Glossaries for US CERCLA|320
2|Appendix II: Terms and Glossaries for UK Contaminated Land Law|327
1|Index|331
1|Contents|8
1|Selected Acronyms|15
1|List of Figures|17
1|List of Tables|18
1|Chapter 1: Introduction|19
2|Reference|25
1|Chapter 2: Status Quo of Land Contamination in China: Causes, Effects and Features|26
2|2.1 Introduction|26
2|2.2 Several Key Concepts|28
3|2.2.1 Contaminated Land|28
3|2.2.2 Soil Pollution and Land Contamination|28
2|2.3 Causes of Land Contamination in China|28
3|2.3.1 Agricultural Nonpoint Sources Pollution (NSP)|29
4|2.3.1.1 Wastewater Irrigation|29
4|2.3.1.2 Chemical Pesticides|31
4|2.3.1.3 Agricultural Film|33
4|2.3.1.4 Chemical Fertilizer|33
4|2.3.1.5 Livestock Waste|35
3|2.3.2 Heavy Metal Pollution|36
4|2.3.2.1 Cadmium|38
4|2.3.2.2 Mercury|39
4|2.3.2.3 Lead|40
4|2.3.2.4 Case Study: Guiyu, `The Most Toxic Place in the World´|42
3|2.3.3 Radioactive Pollution|44
3|2.3.4 Urban Land Contamination: Former Industry Sites|45
3|2.3.5 Other Sources|46
2|2.4 Effects of Present Land Contamination in China|47
3|2.4.1 Health Damage to People and Ecosystem|47
3|2.4.2 Tremendous Economic Loss|48
3|2.4.3 Endangered Food Security|49
3|2.4.4 Endangered Food Quality Safety|51
3|2.4.5 Endangered Social Stability|52
2|2.5 Conclusion|53
2|References|53
1|Chapter 3: The Regulatory Frameworks to Address Land Contamination in China|59
2|3.1 Introduction|59
2|3.2 The Institutional Framework of Environmental Legislation in China|60
3|3.2.1 Background Information|60
3|3.2.2 NPC|62
3|3.2.3 MEE|62
3|3.2.4 Relevant Ministries|64
3|3.2.5 EPBs|65
2|3.3 Regulatory Frameworks on Addressing Contaminated Land Issues|65
3|3.3.1 The 1982 Constitution|67
3|3.3.2 Environmental Protection Law 1989|68
3|3.3.3 Soil Contamination Law 2018|69
3|3.3.4 Other National Wide Laws and Regulations|70
4|3.3.4.1 Provisions on Solid Wastes Pollution Control|70
4|3.3.4.2 Provisions Relating to Atmospheric Environment Protection|71
4|3.3.4.3 Provisions on Land Resource and Agricultural Environment Protection|71
4|3.3.4.4 Provisions on Water Resource Protection|73
4|3.3.4.5 Provisions on Ecosystem Protection|73
3|3.3.5 Decrees|73
3|3.3.6 Local Legislation|75
4|3.3.6.1 Local Legislation: General Provisions|75
4|3.3.6.2 Specific Local Legislation on Contaminated Land Management|76
3|3.3.7 Environmental Standards|77
2|3.4 Existing Land Contamination Control Regimes|78
3|3.4.1 Land Contamination Monitoring Systems|79
3|3.4.2 Site Assessment and Reporting|80
3|3.4.3 Contaminated Land Treatment and Remediation|81
3|3.4.4 Land Contamination Liability Regime|82
4|3.4.4.1 Civil Liabilities|83
4|3.4.4.2 Administrative Liabilities|85
4|3.4.4.3 Criminal Liabilities|85
2|3.5 The Government´s Response|86
3|3.5.1 Scientific Outlook on Development and State Council Decisions|87
3|3.5.2 China´s Five-Year-Plan for National Economic and Social Development|88
3|3.5.3 Survey on Soil Pollution|88
3|3.5.4 Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Soil Pollution (2016)|89
3|3.5.5 National Environment and Health Action Plan (2007-2015)|90
2|3.6 Concluding Remarks|91
2|References|93
1|Chapter 4: Contaminated Land Regime Under the Soil Contamination Law of China 2018|95
2|4.1 Introduction|95
2|4.2 Statutory Definition of Soil Contamination|97
2|4.3 Institutional Design and Institutional Controls of China´s Contaminated Land Regime|97
3|4.3.1 Institutional Design|97
3|4.3.2 Institutional Controls|98
4|4.3.2.1 Soil Contamination Control Plan|98
4|4.3.2.2 Environmental Standards for Soil Contamination Risk Management and Control|99
4|4.3.2.3 Zoning Restrictions|99
4|4.3.2.4 Survey and Monitoring|100
4|4.3.2.5 Information Management|100
2|4.4 Risk Management and Control, and Remediation|101
3|4.4.1 General Requirements|102
3|4.4.2 Risk Management and Control: Soil Contamination Investigation|104
4|4.4.2.1 Triggers for Investigation|104
4|4.4.2.2 Enforcing Authorities of Investigation|106
4|4.4.2.3 Duty to Prepare Investigation Reports|108
3|4.4.3 Risk Management and Control: Risk Assessment|108
3|4.4.4 Risk Management and Control for Agricultural Land|109
3|4.4.5 Risk Management and Control for Construction Land|111
3|4.4.6 Contaminated Land Remediation|111
4|4.4.6.1 Remediation of Agricultural Land|111
4|4.4.6.2 Remediation of Construction Land|112
2|4.5 Liability Issues|113
3|4.5.1 Administrative Liabilities and Criminal Liabilities|113
3|4.5.2 Civil Liabilities|114
2|4.6 Financial Supports and Tax Incentives|115
3|4.6.1 General Request of the Funding Policy|116
3|4.6.2 Fund|116
3|4.6.3 Loans|117
3|4.6.4 Tax Incentives|117
2|4.7 Conclusion|118
2|References|119
1|Chapter 5: Contaminated Land Liability Scheme in the US: Lessons for China?|120
2|5.1 Overview|120
2|5.2 Operative Concepts of CERCLA Liability Scheme|121
3|5.2.1 The Liability Standard of CERCLA|121
4|5.2.1.1 Strict Liability|122
4|5.2.1.2 Joint and Several Liability|123
4|5.2.1.3 Retroactive Liability|124
3|5.2.2 Responsible Parties|125
4|5.2.2.1 Current Owners and Operators|126
5|Current Owners|126
5|Current Operators|128
4|5.2.2.2 Past Owners or Operators|130
4|5.2.2.3 Arranger|131
4|5.2.2.4 Transporters|132
3|5.2.3 Secondarily Liable Potentially Responsible Parties|133
4|5.2.3.1 Lenders|133
4|5.2.3.2 Corporations|135
5|Parent Companies and Other Shareholders|135
5|Directors, Officers and Employees|136
5|Engineers and Contractors|137
5|Successor Companies|137
5|Dissolved Corporations|138
5|Companies Operated by Other Companies|139
5|Fiduciaries, Estates and Beneficiaries|139
5|Federal, State and Local Governments|140
3|5.2.4 Triggers of Liability|140
4|5.2.4.1 Facility or Vessel|141
4|5.2.4.2 Release or Threatened Release|141
4|5.2.4.3 Hazardous Substance|142
4|5.2.4.4 Causing the Incurrence of Response Costs|143
3|5.2.5 Other Issues to Address the CERCLA Liability Mechanism|144
4|5.2.5.1 Recoverable Cost|144
4|5.2.5.2 Options for Cost Recovery|144
4|5.2.5.3 Limit of Liability|145
4|5.2.5.4 Defences to CERCLA Liability|145
2|5.3 Critique of the CERCLA Liability Scheme|147
3|5.3.1 Limited Coverage of Claims|148
3|5.3.2 Limit Statutory Defences|148
3|5.3.3 Neglected Fairness Issue|149
3|5.3.4 Continued Debate Over CERCLA´s Effectiveness|149
2|5.4 Criteria for an Ideal Liability System: Cost-Benefit Analysis|150
3|5.4.1 A Liability-Based Approach Should Generate Low Transaction Costs|151
3|5.4.2 A Liability Mechanism Should Balance Stakeholder Interactions|152
3|5.4.3 Fair Methods|153
3|5.4.4 Limitations of Cost-Benefit Analysis|154
2|5.5 Conclusion|155
2|References|156
1|Chapter 6: Contaminated Land Liability Regime in the UK: General Concerns for Developing Contaminated Land Liability System in...|158
2|6.1 Introduction|158
2|6.2 Liability Basis: Defining Contaminated Land|161
3|6.2.1 The Statutory Definition of Contaminated Land|161
3|6.2.2 Establishment of the Concept of `Pollutant Linkage´|162
3|6.2.3 The Concepts of `Substances´ and `Land´|162
3|6.2.4 Criteria for `Harm´ and the `Significant Possibility of Harm´|163
3|6.2.5 Stages for Identifying Liability|165
3|6.2.6 The Role of the Enforcing Authorities|166
2|6.3 Liability Regime for the Contaminated Land|167
3|6.3.1 Liable Parties: The Appropriate Person|167
4|6.3.1.1 The First Rank of Appropriate Persons: `Class A´|168
4|6.3.1.2 The Meaning of `Caused´ and `Knowingly Permitted´|169
3|6.3.2 The Second Rank of Appropriate Persons: `Class B´|171
3|6.3.3 Exclusions and Exemptions of Liability|173
4|6.3.3.1 Exemptions from Class A Liability|173
4|6.3.3.2 Exemptions from Class B Liability|175
3|6.3.4 The Liability Standard of Part IIA|176
4|6.3.4.1 Retrospective Liability|176
4|6.3.4.2 Modified Joint and Several Liability|177
2|6.4 Types of Appropriate Persons|179
3|6.4.1 Liability of Owners and Occupiers|179
3|6.4.2 Company´s Liability Associated with Contaminated Land|180
4|6.4.2.1 Company as Developers|181
4|6.4.2.2 Parent Companies, Other Shareholders and Affiliated Companies|182
4|6.4.2.3 Insolvent Companies|182
4|6.4.2.4 Companies in Liquidation|183
4|6.4.2.5 Insolvency Practitioners|183
4|6.4.2.6 Unincorporated Association|184
3|6.4.3 Banks, Other Lenders and Similar Entities|184
4|6.4.3.1 Banks and Other Lenders|184
4|6.4.3.2 Tenants|186
4|6.4.3.3 Trustees|186
4|6.4.3.4 Managing Agents|187
3|6.4.4 Environmental Consultants and Contractors|187
3|6.4.5 Local Authorities and Governmental Bodies|188
2|6.5 Conclusion|189
2|References|191
1|Chapter 7: Contaminated Land Remediation: Legal Issues and Recommendations for China|192
2|7.1 Introduction|192
2|7.2 Why Remediate Contaminated Land? Cost-Benefit Analysis for Remediation Decisions|195
3|7.2.1 Costs of Contaminated Land Remediation|196
3|7.2.2 Benefits of Contaminated Land Remediation|197
3|7.2.3 Cost-Benefit Analysis for Remediation Decision: Critical Remarks|198
2|7.3 How to Remediate Contaminated Sites? Legal Frameworks in the US and UK|199
3|7.3.1 Essential Issues of the Remediation Mechanism in the US|199
3|7.3.2 Blue Print for Remediation: National Contingency Plan (NCP)|200
3|7.3.3 Contaminated Sites Information Management Mechanism Under the CERCLA|201
4|7.3.3.1 Information Sources: Discovery of Contaminated Sites|201
4|7.3.3.2 Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act Information System (1987-2014) (CERCLIS)|202
4|7.3.3.3 Superfund Enterprise Management System (SEMS)|203
4|7.3.3.4 Contaminated Sites Investigation Under the CERCLA|204
3|7.3.4 Contaminated Sites Ranking and Listing Under the CERCLA|205
4|7.3.4.1 Hazard Ranking System (HRS)|205
4|7.3.4.2 Rules for Listing and Deleting Contaminated Sites|206
3|7.3.5 Authoritative Departments of Implementing Remediation|207
3|7.3.6 Essential Elements of the Remediation Mechanism in the UK|209
4|7.3.6.1 Back Ground Information|209
4|7.3.6.2 Remediation Objectives|209
4|7.3.6.3 Remediation Actions|210
4|7.3.6.4 Indictors for Sustainability Assessment of Remediation Options|211
2|7.4 Technological Issues Related to Contaminated Land Remediation in the US and UK|211
3|7.4.1 Remedial Technologies Applied in the US|211
4|7.4.1.1 Treatment Technology in General|211
4|7.4.1.2 Satutory Options for the Selection of Remedial Techologies|213
3|7.4.2 Remedial Technologies Applied in the UK|214
3|7.4.3 Review for Current Contaminated Land Remediation Mechanism|215
2|7.5 How Clean Is Clean? Questions on Contaminated Land Remediation Standards|217
3|7.5.1 Remediation Standards in the UK|218
4|7.5.1.1 The `Suitable for Use´ Approach|218
4|7.5.1.2 Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO)|220
3|7.5.2 Contaminated Land Cleanup Standards in the US|220
4|7.5.2.1 Applicable or Relevant and Appropriate Requirements (ARARs)|222
4|7.5.2.2 Future Land Use vs Multi-functionality Approach|223
2|7.6 Recommended Principles for Sustainable Contaminated Land Remediation in China|225
2|7.7 Conclusion|229
2|References|230
1|Chapter 8: The Role of Environmental Liability Insurance in Contaminated Land Legislation of China: Theories and Case Study|233
2|8.1 Introduction|233
2|8.2 Environmental Risk and Environmental Insurance|236
2|8.3 Functions of Environmental Insurance|236
2|8.4 Insurability of Contaminated Land Related Risks|238
2|8.5 Features of Environmental Insurance Policies|241
2|8.6 Contaminated Land Related Insurance in US and UK|242
3|8.6.1 Insurance Response to Environmental Liability in US|242
3|8.6.2 Insurance Response to Environmental Liability in UK|243
3|8.6.3 Types (Coverage) of Environmental Insurance|244
3|8.6.4 Changes and Developments|245
3|8.6.5 Appropriative Coverage of Insurance for Contaminated Land|246
4|8.6.5.1 Coverage in Brief|246
4|8.6.5.2 Primary Types of Coverage|246
4|8.6.5.3 Environmental-Impairment Liability Cover|247
4|8.6.5.4 Property Transfer Coverage|247
4|8.6.5.5 Off-site Liability Coverage|248
4|8.6.5.6 Remediation Stop-Loss/Cost-Cap Coverage|248
4|8.6.5.7 Homeowners, Contractors and Lenders Cover|249
4|8.6.5.8 Finite Risk Programs|250
4|8.6.5.9 Other Coverage|250
3|8.6.6 Trigger Issues|250
4|8.6.6.1 Actual Injury (Injury in Fact) Theory|251
4|8.6.6.2 Exposure Theory|251
4|8.6.6.3 Manifestation Theory|251
4|8.6.6.4 Continuous Trigger Theory|252
3|8.6.7 Stakeholder Analysis for Contaminated Land Related Environmental Insurance|252
2|8.7 Environmental Liability Insurance in China|254
3|8.7.1 Contemporary Environmental Liability Insurance in China|254
4|8.7.1.1 Legislative Development Before 2012|254
4|8.7.1.2 Legislative Development: From 2012 Onwards|256
3|8.7.2 Challenges Facing China|258
4|8.7.2.1 Gaps in the Legal Framework|258
4|8.7.2.2 Unclear Market Demand|258
4|8.7.2.3 Lack of Historical Loss Data|259
4|8.7.2.4 Lack of Underwriting Experience|259
4|8.7.2.5 Insufficient Legal Remedies|259
3|8.7.3 Case study: The First Environmental Insurance Case in China|260
2|8.8 Conclusion: Legislative Recommendations|261
2|References|262
1|Chapter 9: Financing Mechanisms for Contaminated Land Remediation and Redevelopment|265
2|9.1 Introduction|265
2|9.2 Contaminated Land Redevelopment Funding Mechanisms in the UK|268
3|9.2.1 Frameworks for Funding Mechanisms Under the Environmental Protection Act 1990|268
3|9.2.2 English Partnerships (Former) Operated Programs|269
3|9.2.3 Regional Development Agencies and the Single Regeneration Budget|270
3|9.2.4 Other Key Funding Programs|272
4|9.2.4.1 Supplementary Credit Approvals|272
4|9.2.4.2 Contaminated Land Capital Projects Program|273
4|9.2.4.3 Grant in Aid|274
4|9.2.4.4 European Regional Development Fund|274
2|9.3 Funding Mechanisms for Brownfield Redevelopment in the US|275
3|9.3.1 Federal and State Grants Under the EPA Brownfields Programs|275
3|9.3.2 The US Department of Housing and Urban Development´s Brownfields Grants|277
3|9.3.3 Brownfield Trust Funds|278
3|9.3.4 Real Estate Investment Trust (REIT)|279
3|9.3.5 Tax as Brownfield Financing Instruments|280
4|9.3.5.1 Federal Tax Incentives|280
4|9.3.5.2 State Tax Incentives|282
4|9.3.5.3 Review of the Tax Incentives|282
3|9.3.6 Designated Federal and State Clean-Up Funds|282
2|9.4 Comparison of US and UK Contaminated Land Funding Mechanisms|284
2|9.5 Main Concerns for Establishing Contaminated Land Funding Mechanisms in China|285
3|9.5.1 Objectives of Contaminated Land Funding Mechanisms|285
3|9.5.2 The Role of the Local Government|286
3|9.5.3 Key Factors for a Successful Contaminated Land Funding Mechanism|287
2|9.6 Conclusion|288
2|References|289
1|Chapter 10: Conclusion and Recommendations: A Comparative Review of China´s Contaminated Land Regime|292
2|10.1 Challenges and Problems Faced by China|292
2|10.2 A Reflection on China´s Contaminated Land Legal Frameworks Before 2018|293
3|10.2.1 Lack of a Directly Responsible Authority|293
3|10.2.2 Lack of Reliable Scientific Data|294
3|10.2.3 Lack of State and Local Resources to Handle Emergency Situations|294
3|10.2.4 Lack of a Single Scientific Director in Charge of Relevant Issues|295
3|10.2.5 Insensitivity of Local Authorities|295
2|10.3 A Comparative Review of China´s Contaminated Land Regime Under the Soil Pollution Law 2018|295
3|10.3.1 Defining Soil Contamination in China|295
3|10.3.2 Institutional Design and Controls for Soil Contamination Prevention and Control|296
3|10.3.3 Risk Management and Control and Remediation Mechanism|298
4|10.3.3.1 Problems of the Current `Risk Management and Control´ and Remediation Mechanism|298
4|10.3.3.2 Ways to Improve `Risk Management and Control´ and Remediation Mechanism in China|300
3|10.3.4 Liability Mechanism|302
3|10.3.5 Financial Mechanism|304
3|10.3.6 Public Participation in Contaminated Land Management|305
3|10.3.7 Conducting Environmental Education and Using Consultation for Contaminated Land Case|306
3|10.3.8 Public Interests Litigation on Contaminated Land Cases|306
3|10.3.9 NGO Capacity on Dealing with Land Contaminated Land Issue|307
2|References|308
1|Table of Cases|309
2|US Cases|309
2|UK Cases|312
2|China Cases|313
2|New Zealand Case|313
1|Table of Legislation|314
2|Legislation in China|314
2|US Legislation|318
2|UK Legislation|318
2|Dutch Legislation|319
2|EU Legislation|319
1|Appendices|320
2|Appendix I: Selected Terms and Glossaries for US CERCLA|320
2|Appendix II: Terms and Glossaries for UK Contaminated Land Law|327
1|Index|331