File #2804: "2020_Book_TheAverageConsumerInConfusion-.pdf"
Text
1|Preface|5
1|Acknowledgements|7
1|Contents|8
1|Abbreviations|13
1|Part I: The Average Consumer: A Consumer Fiction in European Trademark Law|20
2|Chapter 1: Background|21
3|1.1 Introduction|21
3|1.2 Who/What Is the Average Consumer?|23
3|1.3 Purpose of Trademarks and European Trademark Law|26
4|1.3.1 The Legal Functions of Trademarks|26
4|1.3.2 Economic Functions of Trademarks|31
4|1.3.3 Functions of European Trademark System|33
3|1.4 Contextualisation|37
3|1.5 Delimitation|39
4|1.5.1 Why Likelihood of Confusion?|40
4|1.5.2 Temporal Delimitation|45
4|1.5.3 Geographical Delimitation|46
4|1.5.4 National Procedural Rules and Evidence|47
4|1.5.5 Adjacent Areas of Law|49
3|1.6 Purpose and Outline of the Analysis|52
3|1.7 Structure|55
2|Chapter 2: Methodology|56
3|2.1 Methodological Challenges|56
3|2.2 European Legal Method: A Scandinavian Kaleidoscope|58
4|2.2.1 Scandinavian Legal Realism|61
4|2.2.2 Critical Legal Positivism|64
4|2.2.3 Coherence and Consistency|65
4|2.2.4 Summarising Discussion|69
3|2.3 Aspects of Comparative Law|72
4|2.3.1 The Vertical Analysis|73
5|2.3.1.1 The Chosen Jurisdictions|75
5|2.3.1.2 Method|77
4|2.3.2 The Horizontal Analysis|79
3|2.4 Conclusion|80
2|Chapter 3: Legal Sources|82
3|3.1 Multi-Level Legal Sources|82
3|3.2 EU Law|82
4|3.2.1 Primary EU Law|83
4|3.2.2 Secondary EU Legislation|86
5|3.2.2.1 Trademark Legislation|86
5|3.2.2.2 The UCPD|89
3|3.3 National Trademark Law and Its Institutions|89
4|3.3.1 England and Wales|90
4|3.3.2 Nordic Trademark Law: Similarities and Differences|92
5|3.3.2.1 Sweden|94
5|3.3.2.2 Denmark|95
5|3.3.2.3 Norway: The EEA Connection|97
3|3.4 National Trademark Courts|100
3|3.5 International Treaties|103
4|3.5.1 The Paris Convention and the TRIPS Agreement|103
4|3.5.2 The Nice Agreement|104
3|3.6 Soft Law: The Important Role of Registration Offices|106
3|3.7 Conclusion|109
2|Chapter 4: The Dynamics of the European Trademark Law|110
3|4.1 The EU as a Lawmaker|110
3|4.2 Harmonisation Through Legislation|111
4|4.2.1 EU Trademark Legislation|111
4|4.2.2 The UCPD|116
3|4.3 The CJEU as a Lawmaker|117
4|4.3.1 Preliminary Rulings: A Dynamic Dialogue with National Courts|120
4|4.3.2 The Court of Justice and Its Appellate Function|125
4|4.3.3 Legal Precedent: Looking Backwards and Ahead|127
4|4.3.4 Interpretation and the Use of Legal Sources|130
4|4.3.5 Opinions of Advocates Generals|136
3|4.4 Conclusion|139
1|Part II: Horizontal Analysis: One Among Other Fictions and the UCPD Consumer Models|141
2|Chapter 5: The Average Consumer as a Legal Fiction and Beyond|142
3|5.1 Introduction|142
3|5.2 Rules and Standards|147
3|5.3 Legal Fictions|151
4|5.3.1 Defining ``Legal Fiction´´|153
4|5.3.2 Why Use Fictions?|155
4|5.3.3 Evaluation|156
3|5.4 Legal Constructs|159
3|5.5 Legal Concepts|160
3|5.6 Conclusion|162
2|Chapter 6: The Average Consumer and Its More or Less Distant Cousins|163
3|6.1 Introduction|163
3|6.2 EU Design Law: The ``Informed User´´|166
4|6.2.1 Background|166
4|6.2.2 Pepsi v. Grupo Promer: Changing the Script?|169
3|6.3 European Patent Law: The ``Person Skilled in the Art´´|175
4|6.3.1 Background|175
4|6.3.2 Is the Skilled Person in Practice a Nerdy Android?|182
3|6.4 Informed or Skilled: Why Does It Matter to Trademark Law?|189
3|6.5 The Reasonable Person in Tort Law|192
4|6.5.1 Background|192
4|6.5.2 The Objectified Reasonable Person|195
3|6.6 Rational Actor Model|200
4|6.6.1 Background|200
4|6.6.2 The Average Consumer and the Rational Actor: Distant Cousins?|203
4|6.6.3 The Critique from Behavioural Economics|208
4|6.6.4 Summarising Discussion|210
3|6.7 Conclusion|212
2|Chapter 7: The UCPD and Trademark Average Consumers: Two of a Kind?|214
3|7.1 Introduction|214
3|7.2 Purpose of the UCPD|216
3|7.3 Transaction Timing and Likelihood of Harm|218
3|7.4 The Average Consumer|220
3|7.5 Other Consumer Models|225
4|7.5.1 The Models at a Glance|225
4|7.5.2 Vulnerable Consumers Represented by Children|228
3|7.6 Conclusion|233
1|Part III: Vertical Analysis: The Judicial Background and European Trademark Law|235
2|Chapter 8: The Early Beginnings of the Average Consumer Pre Sabel|236
3|8.1 What Is the Origin?|236
3|8.2 The Free Movement of Goods Framework|238
3|8.3 Cassis de Dijon: The ``Beacon´´|240
3|8.4 Drei Glocken: The Hard Balance|243
3|8.5 Medical Products and the ``Public Health´´|247
3|8.6 Consumer Protection and Unfair Competition|250
3|8.7 Leaving a Legacy|258
2|Chapter 9: Likelihood of Confusion: Legislative Harmonisation?|264
3|9.1 Introduction|264
3|9.2 The Likelihood of Confusion: An International Standard?|265
4|9.2.1 The Paris Convention|266
4|9.2.2 The TRIPS Agreement|269
3|9.3 The European Likelihood of Confusion Standard|271
4|9.3.1 The EU Standard|272
5|9.3.1.1 Introducing the Legislative Requirements|272
5|9.3.1.2 Part of the Public|277
4|9.3.2 National Differences?|280
5|9.3.2.1 England and Wales|280
5|9.3.2.2 Nordic Countries|283
6|9.3.2.2.1 Sweden|285
6|9.3.2.2.2 Denmark|286
6|9.3.2.2.3 Norway|287
3|9.4 Conclusion|288
2|Chapter 10: The Average Consumer in a ``Global´´ Perspective|291
3|10.1 Introduction|291
3|10.2 The Trinity Decisions: Sabel, Gut Springenheide and Lloyd|292
4|10.2.1 Frame of the Decisions|292
4|10.2.2 Interpretation of the Decisions|294
4|10.2.3 How They Are Relevant Today|298
4|10.2.4 The General Court|302
3|10.3 The Global Appreciation Test in a National Context|306
4|10.3.1 England and Wales|309
4|10.3.2 The Nordic Countries|312
5|10.3.2.1 Sweden|312
5|10.3.2.2 Denmark|315
5|10.3.2.3 Norway|318
3|10.4 Conclusion|320
2|Chapter 11: Contextualisation of the Average Consumer|324
3|11.1 Introduction|324
3|11.2 Discounting|332
4|11.2.1 Discounting the Homer Simpsons and Mr. Spocks?|332
4|11.2.2 Average as or ``Ordinary´´?|335
3|11.3 Similarity of the Products|340
3|11.4 Different Product Markets|343
4|11.4.1 General Court Practice|344
5|11.4.1.1 Everyday Consumer Goods|344
5|11.4.1.2 Specialised Goods|351
4|11.4.2 National Examples|356
5|11.4.2.1 UK|356
5|11.4.2.2 Nordic Jurisdictions|361
3|11.5 Different Market Places|367
3|11.6 Trademark Contextualisation|370
3|11.7 Conclusion|372
1|Part IV: Wrapping Up|376
2|Chapter 12: Putting the Average Consumer into Perspective|377
3|12.1 Lessons Learned|377
3|12.2 The Distant Cousins and the False Friends in European Law|378
3|12.3 European Trademark Law: A Patchwork|379
3|12.4 A Need for Concern?|384
3|12.5 Bringing in Trademark Policy|386
3|12.6 Law and Economics: A Search Cost Analysis|390
3|12.7 Future Research|392
1|Table of Legislation, Preparatory Works Etc.|396
2|International and European|396
3|Treaties and Conventions|396
3|Preparatory Works Etc.|396
2|European Union|397
3|Primary Law|397
4|Treaties|397
4|Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union|398
3|Secondary Legislation|398
4|Regulations|398
4|Directives|399
4|Preparatory Works Etc.|400
2|National Jurisdictions|402
3|United Kingdom (England and Wales)|402
4|Legislation|402
4|Preparatory Works Etc.|402
3|Nordic|402
3|Sweden|402
4|Legislation|402
4|Preparatory works etc.|403
3|Denmark|403
4|Legislation|403
4|Preparatory Works etc.|403
3|Norway|404
4|Legislation|404
4|Preparatory Works etc.|404
1|Table of Cases|405
2|EU|405
3|Court of Justice|405
4|Preliminary References Etc.|405
4|Appeals from the General Court|408
3|Opinions of Advocates General|409
4|Preliminary References|409
4|Appeals from the General Court|411
3|General Court|411
4|Tried by the Court of Justice|411
4|Not Tried by the Court of Justice|413
3|EUIPO Board of Appeal|416
3|EFTA Court|417
2|UK|417
3|UK Supreme Court (``UKSC´´)|417
3|UK Court of Appeal (``EWCA´´)|417
3|UK High Court (``EWHC´´)|418
4|Tried by EWCA|418
4|Not Tried by EWCA|418
2|Sweden|418
3|SE Supreme Court (``SESC´´)|418
3|SE Court of Appeal (``SECA´´)|419
3|SE District Court (``SEDC´´)|419
4|Tried by SECA|419
4|Not Tried by SECA|419
2|Denmark|419
3|DK Supreme Court (``DKSC´´)|419
3|DK Court of Appeal (``DKCA´´)|420
3|DK Maritime and Commercial High Court (``DK MCH Court/DKMCHC´´)|420
4|Tried by DKSC|420
4|Not Tried by DKSC or DKCA|420
2|Norway|421
3|NO Supreme Court (``NOSC´´)|421
3|NO Court of Appeal (``NOCA´´)|421
4|Tried by NOSC|421
4|Not Tried by NOSC|421
3|NO District Court (``NODC´´)|421
4|Tried by NOSC and NOCA|421
4|Not Tried by NOCA|422
3|EPO Boards of Appeal|422
2|Other Decisions|422
3|Canada|422
3|The USA|422
1|Bibliography|423
2|Books, Journal Articles Etc.|423
2|Internet Sources|441
1|Acknowledgements|7
1|Contents|8
1|Abbreviations|13
1|Part I: The Average Consumer: A Consumer Fiction in European Trademark Law|20
2|Chapter 1: Background|21
3|1.1 Introduction|21
3|1.2 Who/What Is the Average Consumer?|23
3|1.3 Purpose of Trademarks and European Trademark Law|26
4|1.3.1 The Legal Functions of Trademarks|26
4|1.3.2 Economic Functions of Trademarks|31
4|1.3.3 Functions of European Trademark System|33
3|1.4 Contextualisation|37
3|1.5 Delimitation|39
4|1.5.1 Why Likelihood of Confusion?|40
4|1.5.2 Temporal Delimitation|45
4|1.5.3 Geographical Delimitation|46
4|1.5.4 National Procedural Rules and Evidence|47
4|1.5.5 Adjacent Areas of Law|49
3|1.6 Purpose and Outline of the Analysis|52
3|1.7 Structure|55
2|Chapter 2: Methodology|56
3|2.1 Methodological Challenges|56
3|2.2 European Legal Method: A Scandinavian Kaleidoscope|58
4|2.2.1 Scandinavian Legal Realism|61
4|2.2.2 Critical Legal Positivism|64
4|2.2.3 Coherence and Consistency|65
4|2.2.4 Summarising Discussion|69
3|2.3 Aspects of Comparative Law|72
4|2.3.1 The Vertical Analysis|73
5|2.3.1.1 The Chosen Jurisdictions|75
5|2.3.1.2 Method|77
4|2.3.2 The Horizontal Analysis|79
3|2.4 Conclusion|80
2|Chapter 3: Legal Sources|82
3|3.1 Multi-Level Legal Sources|82
3|3.2 EU Law|82
4|3.2.1 Primary EU Law|83
4|3.2.2 Secondary EU Legislation|86
5|3.2.2.1 Trademark Legislation|86
5|3.2.2.2 The UCPD|89
3|3.3 National Trademark Law and Its Institutions|89
4|3.3.1 England and Wales|90
4|3.3.2 Nordic Trademark Law: Similarities and Differences|92
5|3.3.2.1 Sweden|94
5|3.3.2.2 Denmark|95
5|3.3.2.3 Norway: The EEA Connection|97
3|3.4 National Trademark Courts|100
3|3.5 International Treaties|103
4|3.5.1 The Paris Convention and the TRIPS Agreement|103
4|3.5.2 The Nice Agreement|104
3|3.6 Soft Law: The Important Role of Registration Offices|106
3|3.7 Conclusion|109
2|Chapter 4: The Dynamics of the European Trademark Law|110
3|4.1 The EU as a Lawmaker|110
3|4.2 Harmonisation Through Legislation|111
4|4.2.1 EU Trademark Legislation|111
4|4.2.2 The UCPD|116
3|4.3 The CJEU as a Lawmaker|117
4|4.3.1 Preliminary Rulings: A Dynamic Dialogue with National Courts|120
4|4.3.2 The Court of Justice and Its Appellate Function|125
4|4.3.3 Legal Precedent: Looking Backwards and Ahead|127
4|4.3.4 Interpretation and the Use of Legal Sources|130
4|4.3.5 Opinions of Advocates Generals|136
3|4.4 Conclusion|139
1|Part II: Horizontal Analysis: One Among Other Fictions and the UCPD Consumer Models|141
2|Chapter 5: The Average Consumer as a Legal Fiction and Beyond|142
3|5.1 Introduction|142
3|5.2 Rules and Standards|147
3|5.3 Legal Fictions|151
4|5.3.1 Defining ``Legal Fiction´´|153
4|5.3.2 Why Use Fictions?|155
4|5.3.3 Evaluation|156
3|5.4 Legal Constructs|159
3|5.5 Legal Concepts|160
3|5.6 Conclusion|162
2|Chapter 6: The Average Consumer and Its More or Less Distant Cousins|163
3|6.1 Introduction|163
3|6.2 EU Design Law: The ``Informed User´´|166
4|6.2.1 Background|166
4|6.2.2 Pepsi v. Grupo Promer: Changing the Script?|169
3|6.3 European Patent Law: The ``Person Skilled in the Art´´|175
4|6.3.1 Background|175
4|6.3.2 Is the Skilled Person in Practice a Nerdy Android?|182
3|6.4 Informed or Skilled: Why Does It Matter to Trademark Law?|189
3|6.5 The Reasonable Person in Tort Law|192
4|6.5.1 Background|192
4|6.5.2 The Objectified Reasonable Person|195
3|6.6 Rational Actor Model|200
4|6.6.1 Background|200
4|6.6.2 The Average Consumer and the Rational Actor: Distant Cousins?|203
4|6.6.3 The Critique from Behavioural Economics|208
4|6.6.4 Summarising Discussion|210
3|6.7 Conclusion|212
2|Chapter 7: The UCPD and Trademark Average Consumers: Two of a Kind?|214
3|7.1 Introduction|214
3|7.2 Purpose of the UCPD|216
3|7.3 Transaction Timing and Likelihood of Harm|218
3|7.4 The Average Consumer|220
3|7.5 Other Consumer Models|225
4|7.5.1 The Models at a Glance|225
4|7.5.2 Vulnerable Consumers Represented by Children|228
3|7.6 Conclusion|233
1|Part III: Vertical Analysis: The Judicial Background and European Trademark Law|235
2|Chapter 8: The Early Beginnings of the Average Consumer Pre Sabel|236
3|8.1 What Is the Origin?|236
3|8.2 The Free Movement of Goods Framework|238
3|8.3 Cassis de Dijon: The ``Beacon´´|240
3|8.4 Drei Glocken: The Hard Balance|243
3|8.5 Medical Products and the ``Public Health´´|247
3|8.6 Consumer Protection and Unfair Competition|250
3|8.7 Leaving a Legacy|258
2|Chapter 9: Likelihood of Confusion: Legislative Harmonisation?|264
3|9.1 Introduction|264
3|9.2 The Likelihood of Confusion: An International Standard?|265
4|9.2.1 The Paris Convention|266
4|9.2.2 The TRIPS Agreement|269
3|9.3 The European Likelihood of Confusion Standard|271
4|9.3.1 The EU Standard|272
5|9.3.1.1 Introducing the Legislative Requirements|272
5|9.3.1.2 Part of the Public|277
4|9.3.2 National Differences?|280
5|9.3.2.1 England and Wales|280
5|9.3.2.2 Nordic Countries|283
6|9.3.2.2.1 Sweden|285
6|9.3.2.2.2 Denmark|286
6|9.3.2.2.3 Norway|287
3|9.4 Conclusion|288
2|Chapter 10: The Average Consumer in a ``Global´´ Perspective|291
3|10.1 Introduction|291
3|10.2 The Trinity Decisions: Sabel, Gut Springenheide and Lloyd|292
4|10.2.1 Frame of the Decisions|292
4|10.2.2 Interpretation of the Decisions|294
4|10.2.3 How They Are Relevant Today|298
4|10.2.4 The General Court|302
3|10.3 The Global Appreciation Test in a National Context|306
4|10.3.1 England and Wales|309
4|10.3.2 The Nordic Countries|312
5|10.3.2.1 Sweden|312
5|10.3.2.2 Denmark|315
5|10.3.2.3 Norway|318
3|10.4 Conclusion|320
2|Chapter 11: Contextualisation of the Average Consumer|324
3|11.1 Introduction|324
3|11.2 Discounting|332
4|11.2.1 Discounting the Homer Simpsons and Mr. Spocks?|332
4|11.2.2 Average as or ``Ordinary´´?|335
3|11.3 Similarity of the Products|340
3|11.4 Different Product Markets|343
4|11.4.1 General Court Practice|344
5|11.4.1.1 Everyday Consumer Goods|344
5|11.4.1.2 Specialised Goods|351
4|11.4.2 National Examples|356
5|11.4.2.1 UK|356
5|11.4.2.2 Nordic Jurisdictions|361
3|11.5 Different Market Places|367
3|11.6 Trademark Contextualisation|370
3|11.7 Conclusion|372
1|Part IV: Wrapping Up|376
2|Chapter 12: Putting the Average Consumer into Perspective|377
3|12.1 Lessons Learned|377
3|12.2 The Distant Cousins and the False Friends in European Law|378
3|12.3 European Trademark Law: A Patchwork|379
3|12.4 A Need for Concern?|384
3|12.5 Bringing in Trademark Policy|386
3|12.6 Law and Economics: A Search Cost Analysis|390
3|12.7 Future Research|392
1|Table of Legislation, Preparatory Works Etc.|396
2|International and European|396
3|Treaties and Conventions|396
3|Preparatory Works Etc.|396
2|European Union|397
3|Primary Law|397
4|Treaties|397
4|Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union|398
3|Secondary Legislation|398
4|Regulations|398
4|Directives|399
4|Preparatory Works Etc.|400
2|National Jurisdictions|402
3|United Kingdom (England and Wales)|402
4|Legislation|402
4|Preparatory Works Etc.|402
3|Nordic|402
3|Sweden|402
4|Legislation|402
4|Preparatory works etc.|403
3|Denmark|403
4|Legislation|403
4|Preparatory Works etc.|403
3|Norway|404
4|Legislation|404
4|Preparatory Works etc.|404
1|Table of Cases|405
2|EU|405
3|Court of Justice|405
4|Preliminary References Etc.|405
4|Appeals from the General Court|408
3|Opinions of Advocates General|409
4|Preliminary References|409
4|Appeals from the General Court|411
3|General Court|411
4|Tried by the Court of Justice|411
4|Not Tried by the Court of Justice|413
3|EUIPO Board of Appeal|416
3|EFTA Court|417
2|UK|417
3|UK Supreme Court (``UKSC´´)|417
3|UK Court of Appeal (``EWCA´´)|417
3|UK High Court (``EWHC´´)|418
4|Tried by EWCA|418
4|Not Tried by EWCA|418
2|Sweden|418
3|SE Supreme Court (``SESC´´)|418
3|SE Court of Appeal (``SECA´´)|419
3|SE District Court (``SEDC´´)|419
4|Tried by SECA|419
4|Not Tried by SECA|419
2|Denmark|419
3|DK Supreme Court (``DKSC´´)|419
3|DK Court of Appeal (``DKCA´´)|420
3|DK Maritime and Commercial High Court (``DK MCH Court/DKMCHC´´)|420
4|Tried by DKSC|420
4|Not Tried by DKSC or DKCA|420
2|Norway|421
3|NO Supreme Court (``NOSC´´)|421
3|NO Court of Appeal (``NOCA´´)|421
4|Tried by NOSC|421
4|Not Tried by NOSC|421
3|NO District Court (``NODC´´)|421
4|Tried by NOSC and NOCA|421
4|Not Tried by NOCA|422
3|EPO Boards of Appeal|422
2|Other Decisions|422
3|Canada|422
3|The USA|422
1|Bibliography|423
2|Books, Journal Articles Etc.|423
2|Internet Sources|441