File #2869: "2020_Book_TheLawOfCoastalAdaptation.pdf"
Text
1|Acknowledgements|6
1|Contents|7
1|Abbreviations|21
1|Chapter 1: Introduction|22
2|1.1 Setting the Scene|22
3|1.1.1 Climate Change in the Coastal Context|22
3|1.1.2 The Need for Coastal Adaptation|23
3|1.1.3 Adaptation in a Broader Sense|24
3|1.1.4 The Role of Law|24
2|1.2 Definitions|25
3|1.2.1 Climate and Climate Change|25
3|1.2.2 Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation|26
3|1.2.3 Vulnerability and Resilience|26
3|1.2.4 Hazard, Risk and Hazard Risk|27
3|1.2.5 Coastal Zone|27
3|1.2.6 Coastal Hazards|28
2|1.3 On the Comparative Aspect|28
3|1.3.1 Reasons for Choosing Germany and New Zealand As Examples|28
4|1.3.1.1 Factual Similarities and Differences|28
4|1.3.1.2 Institutional Differences|29
3|1.3.2 Comparative Aspects of This Thesis|30
4|1.3.2.1 The Functional Method and the Presumption of Similarity|30
4|1.3.2.2 Comparison of Overall Concepts|31
2|1.4 Scope of the Thesis|32
3|1.4.1 Purpose of This Work|32
3|1.4.2 Limitations|32
2|References|33
1|Chapter 2: Scientific Background|36
2|2.1 Climate Change and Rising Sea Levels|36
3|2.1.1 Changing Climate|36
3|2.1.2 Global Mean Sea Level Rise|38
3|2.1.3 Tipping Points and Abrupt Changes|38
3|2.1.4 Different Types of Sea Level|39
4|2.1.4.1 Overview|39
4|2.1.4.2 Regional Sea Level Rise Projections for Germany and New Zealand|41
2|2.2 Consequences of Rising Sea Levels|41
3|2.2.1 Coastal Flooding|42
3|2.2.2 Coastal Erosion|43
3|2.2.3 Coastal Squeeze and Other Impacts|43
3|2.2.4 Need for Adaptation|44
3|2.2.5 Predictions for Germany|44
4|2.2.5.1 North Sea|44
4|2.2.5.2 Baltic Sea|45
3|2.2.6 Predictions for New Zealand|46
2|2.3 Examples of Past Coastal Hazard Events|47
3|2.3.1 Storm Surge 1962 at the North Sea|47
3|2.3.2 New Zealand Flood Events in February 2018|47
3|2.3.3 A Worldwide Problem: The Example of Hurricane Katrina|48
2|2.4 Coastal Adaptation Strategies|48
2|2.5 Overview of Coastal Adaptation Actions|49
3|2.5.1 Risk Assessment and Hazard Mapping|50
3|2.5.2 Structural ``Hard´´ Defences|50
3|2.5.3 ``Soft´´ Defences|52
4|2.5.3.1 Dunes|52
4|2.5.3.2 Sand Nourishment|53
4|2.5.3.3 Buffer Zones|54
3|2.5.4 Risk Avoidance|55
3|2.5.5 Accommodation|56
4|2.5.5.1 Flood-Resistant Design|56
4|2.5.5.2 Insurance|56
3|2.5.6 Retreat Strategies|57
4|2.5.6.1 Managed Retreat|57
4|2.5.6.2 Coastal Setbacks|59
2|2.6 General Challenges for Coastal Adaptation to Rising Sea Levels|59
3|2.6.1 Complexity of Coastal Adaptation|59
3|2.6.2 Long-Term Perspective|60
3|2.6.3 Coping with Uncertainty|60
3|2.6.4 Avoiding Maladaptation|61
2|2.7 Intersection with Other Areas and Demands|61
2|2.8 Impact on the State, Its Responsibilities and the Role of Law|62
3|2.8.1 The State´s Role in Coastal Adaptation|62
3|2.8.2 Human Risk Perception|63
3|2.8.3 The Role of Law|64
2|References|65
1|Chapter 3: Legal Framework for Coastal Adaptation to Rising Sea Levels in Germany|73
2|3.1 Introduction|73
3|3.1.1 Overview of Germany´s Legal System|73
4|3.1.1.1 Germany as a Federal State|74
4|3.1.1.2 German Basic Law|74
4|3.1.1.3 European Union Law|75
4|3.1.1.4 Overview Main Legal Instruments|76
3|3.1.2 Climate Change Adaptation in Germany (General Overview)|77
3|3.1.3 General Plans on Coastal Protection (Generalpläne Küstenschutz)|78
2|3.2 Risk Assessment and Hazard Mapping|79
3|3.2.1 Staged Process Under the EU Floods Directive|79
3|3.2.2 Flood Hazard and Flood Risk Maps|80
3|3.2.3 Periodic Review|81
3|3.2.4 Summary and Judicial Review|82
2|3.3 Funding|83
2|3.4 Protect Strategies|84
3|3.4.1 Responsible Agencies for Coastal Protection|84
4|3.4.1.1 The Associations for Dike Maintenance (Deichverbände)|85
4|3.4.1.2 Lower Saxony, Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, and Bremen|86
4|3.4.1.3 Special Responsibilities of the Federal State|87
4|3.4.1.4 Conclusion|87
3|3.4.2 Project Approval Procedure (Planfeststellungsverfahren)|87
4|3.4.2.1 Necessity of a Project Approval Procedure|88
4|3.4.2.2 The Procedure|88
4|3.4.2.3 Judicial Review|89
4|3.4.2.4 Deviating State Provisions|90
3|3.4.3 Calculation of Dike Dimensions|91
3|3.4.4 Safeguarding Space for Future Enhancements|92
3|3.4.5 Maintenance|93
4|3.4.5.1 Responsiblity for Maintenance|94
4|3.4.5.2 Regulations Concerning the Extent of the Obligation to Maintain|94
3|3.4.6 Dunes|95
3|3.4.7 Buffer Zones|96
3|3.4.8 Sand Nourishment|96
4|3.4.8.1 Environmental Impacts and Impairments|97
4|3.4.8.2 Further Regulation on Sand Extraction|98
2|3.5 Property Rights|98
3|3.5.1 Erosion and Accretion|98
4|3.5.1.1 Federal Waterways|99
4|3.5.1.2 Tidally Influenced Rivers at State Level|99
4|3.5.1.3 Summary|100
3|3.5.2 Expropriation (Enteignung)|100
4|3.5.2.1 Federal Building Code|101
4|3.5.2.2 Federal Water Act|101
4|3.5.2.3 State Expropriation Acts and Federal Water Associations Act|103
4|3.5.2.4 Assignment of Ownership (Besitzeinweisung)|104
3|3.5.3 Land Use Regulation|105
2|3.6 Accommodation Strategy|106
3|3.6.1 Flood-Resistant Design|106
4|3.6.1.1 Specific Municipal Land Use Plans and Construction Regulations|106
4|3.6.1.2 Dwelling Mounds and Minimum Floor Levels|107
4|3.6.1.3 Floodplains|108
4|3.6.1.4 General Duty of Care|109
3|3.6.2 Insurance|110
2|3.7 Avoidance: Future Development|111
3|3.7.1 Spatial and Land Use Planning (General)|111
4|3.7.1.1 Important Terms|112
4|3.7.1.2 Spatial Planning Act (ROG)|112
5|3.7.1.2.1 Digression: Spatial Planning and Uncertainty|114
5|3.7.1.2.2 State-Wide and Regional Land Use Plans|115
5|3.7.1.2.3 Regional Planning Procedure|116
4|3.7.1.3 Relationship of the Different Types of Land Use Plans|117
4|3.7.1.4 Land Use Planning|118
3|3.7.2 Priority and Reserve Areas|120
4|3.7.2.1 Overview|120
4|3.7.2.2 Examples|121
4|3.7.2.3 Summary|122
3|3.7.3 Rights of First Refusal|122
3|3.7.4 Temporary Building Permits|123
3|3.7.5 Floodplains|124
2|3.8 Retreat Strategies: Existing Development|124
3|3.8.1 Managed Retreat|125
4|3.8.1.1 General|125
4|3.8.1.2 Implementation|126
4|3.8.1.3 Conflicting Property Rights|126
5|3.8.1.3.1 Grandfathered Rights|127
5|3.8.1.3.2 Expropriation|127
4|3.8.1.4 Positive Obligations|128
5|3.8.1.4.1 Positive Obligations with Regards to Natural Hazards|128
5|3.8.1.4.2 Limitations|129
4|3.8.1.5 Redevelopment of Settlements|130
4|3.8.1.6 Summary|131
3|3.8.2 Coastal Setbacks|131
4|3.8.2.1 Existing Setbacks|131
4|3.8.2.2 Setbacks as Multipurpose Instruments|132
2|3.9 Intersecting Legal Regimes|132
3|3.9.1 Nature Conservation|133
4|3.9.1.1 Protected Areas|134
4|3.9.1.2 Impact Regulation|135
4|3.9.1.3 Nature Conservation as a Parameter for Coastal Adaptation|136
4|3.9.1.4 Environmental Impact Assessment|137
4|3.9.1.5 Obligations to Protect Nature|137
5|3.9.1.5.1 Obligation to Protect the Natural Foundations of Life Under the Basic Law|137
5|3.9.1.5.2 Obligations Under the Federal Nature Conservation Act|138
3|3.9.2 Protection of Historic Monuments|139
2|3.10 State Liability|140
3|3.10.1 General|140
3|3.10.2 Liability for Breach of Official Duty (Amtshaftungsanspruch)|140
4|3.10.2.1 General Requirements|140
4|3.10.2.2 Individualized Groups of People as Third Parties and Land Use Plans|142
3|3.10.3 Intervention of Equivalent Effect to Expropriation (Enteignungsgleicher Eingriff)|143
3|3.10.4 Indirect Expropriation (Enteignender Eingriff)|143
3|3.10.5 Summary|144
2|3.11 Summary|144
2|3.12 Evaluation and Recommendations|145
3|3.12.1 Focus on Technical Flood Protection|146
4|3.12.1.1 Reliance on Technical Solutions|146
4|3.12.1.2 Coordination of Different Actors|149
4|3.12.1.3 Limits of Technical Solutions|150
5|3.12.1.3.1 Factual and Economical Limitations|150
5|3.12.1.3.2 Need for an Integrated Approach|150
3|3.12.2 Different Protection Standards for Different Areas?|151
4|3.12.2.1 The Netherlands and the United Kingdom as Role Models?|152
4|3.12.2.2 Implementation Possibility in Germany|152
5|3.12.2.2.1 Equality Before the Law|153
5|3.12.2.2.2 Protection of Legitimate Expectation (Vertrauensschutz)|154
5|3.12.2.2.3 Suggested Criteria|155
3|3.12.3 Strengthening Adaptation in Planning Law|155
4|3.12.3.1 Spatial Planning|156
4|3.12.3.2 Land Use Planning|157
4|3.12.3.3 Relocatable Buildings|158
5|3.12.3.3.1 No Relocation Requirements in Land Use Plans|159
5|3.12.3.3.2 Temporary Building Permit|159
5|3.12.3.3.3 Relocatable Buildings on Shifting Islands|160
3|3.12.4 Managed Retreat Strategy|160
4|3.12.4.1 Status quo and the Necessity for Enabling Retreat Strategies|161
4|3.12.4.2 Decision on Managed Retreat|162
4|3.12.4.3 Suggested Criteria|163
4|3.12.4.4 Second Dikeline|164
4|3.12.4.5 Summary|164
3|3.12.5 No Voluntary Compensation|164
3|3.12.6 Recommended Changes for Planning and Decision-Making|165
4|3.12.6.1 Long-Term Focus|165
4|3.12.6.2 More Flexibility for Administrative Decisions|166
5|3.12.6.2.1 Coping with Uncertainties|166
5|3.12.6.2.2 Adaptable and Flexible Instruments|167
5|3.12.6.2.3 Examples|168
4|3.12.6.3 Fixed Plan Review Intervals|168
4|3.12.6.4 Summary|169
3|3.12.7 Climate Proofing|169
4|3.12.7.1 Definition and Purpose|170
4|3.12.7.2 Taking into Account Climate Change in Current Instruments|171
4|3.12.7.3 Procedural Aspects|171
4|3.12.7.4 Specialist Planning on Climate Change|172
4|3.12.7.5 `Stress Test´|173
3|3.12.8 Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)|174
3|3.12.9 More Uniformity Through Federal or EU Legislation|175
2|3.13 Chapter Conclusion|176
2|References|178
1|Chapter 4: Legal Framework for Coastal Adaptation to Rising Sea Levels in New Zealand|189
2|4.1 Introduction|189
3|4.1.1 New Zealand as a State|189
3|4.1.2 Overview of the Legal System|191
3|4.1.3 Māori Customary Law and Its Influence on the New Zealand Legal System|191
3|4.1.4 Climate Change Adaptation in New Zealand|192
2|4.2 Background Information|193
3|4.2.1 The Resource Management Act 1991|193
3|4.2.2 Planning Instruments Under the RMA|196
4|4.2.2.1 Terminology|196
4|4.2.2.2 Scope and Hierarchy of Planning Instruments Under the RMA|196
4|4.2.2.3 New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement (NZCPS)|197
4|4.2.2.4 Regional Policy Statements (RPS)|200
4|4.2.2.5 Regional Plans and Regional Coastal Plans|201
4|4.2.2.6 District Plans|202
4|4.2.2.7 Interim Summary|203
4|4.2.2.8 Preparation of Policy Statements and Plans|203
4|4.2.2.9 Appeal to the Environment Court|204
3|4.2.3 Resource Consents|205
4|4.2.3.1 Types of Resource Consents|205
5|4.2.3.1.1 Land Use Consents|205
5|4.2.3.1.2 Subdivision Consents|205
5|4.2.3.1.3 Coastal Permits|206
4|4.2.3.2 Required Information|206
4|4.2.3.3 Decision|207
4|4.2.3.4 Conditions for Resource Consents|208
3|4.2.4 Classes of Activities|210
3|4.2.5 National Government Guidance for Local Government|210
2|4.3 Risk Assessment and Risk Management|212
3|4.3.1 Risk in the NZCPS|213
3|4.3.2 Guidance Manual|214
4|4.3.2.1 Sea Level Rise as a Dynamic Parameter|214
4|4.3.2.2 Specific Recommendations|215
4|4.3.2.3 Flexible and Adaptive Management|215
4|4.3.2.4 Transitional Sea Level Rise Values|216
4|4.3.2.5 Summary|217
3|4.3.3 Risk Assessment in Local Government Planning Instruments|217
3|4.3.4 Levels of Risk|218
4|4.3.4.1 Point of Reference|219
4|4.3.4.2 Examples|220
4|4.3.4.3 Decisions on Acceptable Risk by the Environment Court|220
3|4.3.5 Risk Assessment and Resource Consents|221
3|4.3.6 Summary|221
2|4.4 Funding|221
3|4.4.1 Sources of Revenue of Local Government|222
3|4.4.2 Long-Term Plans|223
3|4.4.3 Annual Plans|223
3|4.4.4 Relationship Between Long-Term and Annual Plans and the RMA Planning Instruments|224
2|4.5 Land Use Planning|224
3|4.5.1 Planning Directives|225
3|4.5.2 Natural Hazards|226
3|4.5.3 Avoiding Development|226
4|4.5.3.1 New Development and Natural Hazards|226
4|4.5.3.2 Inappropriate Development|228
5|4.5.3.2.1 Relevant Provisions|228
5|4.5.3.2.2 The Meaning of `Inappropriate´|228
5|4.5.3.2.3 Inappropriateness and Natural Hazards|229
3|4.5.4 Relocatable Buildings and Structures|229
3|4.5.5 Tsunami Risk|230
3|4.5.6 Building Act 2004|231
4|4.5.6.1 General|231
4|4.5.6.2 Provisions Concerning Natural Hazards|232
3|4.5.7 Information Instruments Connected to Land Use|233
4|4.5.7.1 Land Information Memoranda|234
4|4.5.7.2 Project Information Memoranda|234
3|4.5.8 Summary|235
2|4.6 Coastal Setbacks and Buffer Zones|235
3|4.6.1 Setback Lines and Coastal Hazard Areas|235
4|4.6.1.1 Use of Different Setbacks|236
4|4.6.1.2 Setback Lines as a Controversial Issue|237
3|4.6.2 Buffer Zones|237
2|4.7 Property Rights|239
3|4.7.1 Property Rights and the Common Law Doctrine of Accretion and Erosion|239
3|4.7.2 Expropriation or Compulsory Acquisition|240
3|4.7.3 Property Rights Under the RMA|241
2|4.8 Protect Strategy|242
3|4.8.1 Structural Protection Works|242
4|4.8.1.1 Structural Protection Works on Land|243
4|4.8.1.2 Structural Protection Works Within the Coastal Marine Area (CMA)|244
4|4.8.1.3 Choice, Design, and Dimensions of Structures|246
5|4.8.1.3.1 Non-Statutory Guidelines|246
5|4.8.1.3.2 Site-Specific Expert Reports|247
4|4.8.1.4 Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941|247
4|4.8.1.5 Summary|248
3|4.8.2 Dunes|248
3|4.8.3 Sand Nourishment|250
2|4.9 Managed Retreat|251
3|4.9.1 Managed Retreat and Property Rights|252
3|4.9.2 Implementation Strategies|252
4|4.9.2.1 Methods|253
4|4.9.2.2 Existing Use Rights|254
3|4.9.3 Examples|254
3|4.9.4 Planning Instruments on Managed Retreat|255
2|4.10 Accommodation|256
3|4.10.1 Flood-Resistant Design|256
3|4.10.2 Insurance|257
4|4.10.2.1 General|257
4|4.10.2.2 The Earthquake Commission (EQC)|258
5|4.10.2.2.1 Introduction|258
5|4.10.2.2.2 Coverage|259
5|4.10.2.2.3 Potential Limitations|259
2|4.11 Choosing a Strategy: The Example of Cooks Beach Coastal Erosion Management Strategy|260
2|4.12 Obligations to Protect Against Coastal Hazards|262
3|4.12.1 Obligations Under the RMA|262
3|4.12.2 Positive Obligations Under the Local Government Act|263
3|4.12.3 Positive Obligations Under the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act|264
2|4.13 Intersection with Nature Conservation and Protection of Coastal Landscapes|264
3|4.13.1 Intersection with Nature Conservation|264
4|4.13.1.1 Adverse Effects on the Environment in Resource Consent Applications|265
4|4.13.1.2 Synergies: Coastal Vegetation|266
4|4.13.1.3 Conservation Areas|267
4|4.13.1.4 Special Areas in the Hauraki Gulf|267
3|4.13.2 Intersection with the Protection of Coastal Landscapes|268
2|4.14 Liability|269
3|4.14.1 General|270
3|4.14.2 Tort of Negligence|270
4|4.14.2.1 Duty of Care|271
5|4.14.2.1.1 Proximity and Foreseeability|271
5|4.14.2.1.2 Policy Considerations|272
4|4.14.2.2 Breach|273
4|4.14.2.3 Causation and Remoteness|274
3|4.14.3 Liability for Land Information Memoranda|274
4|4.14.3.1 Duty of Care|274
4|4.14.3.2 Remedy|275
3|4.14.4 Exclusion of Liability|276
3|4.14.5 Summary|276
2|4.15 Summary|277
2|4.16 Evaluation and Recommendations|278
3|4.16.1 Revising Responsibilities Between Central and Local Governments|279
4|4.16.1.1 Lack of National Guidance|279
5|4.16.1.1.1 Existing Instruments|280
5|4.16.1.1.2 Proposed New Instruments|280
4|4.16.1.2 Funding|281
5|4.16.1.2.1 Shared Funding Framework|282
5|4.16.1.2.2 General Challenges for Funding|282
3|4.16.2 Strengthening Local Governments|283
4|4.16.2.1 Clear Mandate for Climate Change Adaptation|283
4|4.16.2.2 Clear Legal Framework on Liability|283
5|4.16.2.2.1 Transferrable Lessons from Australia|284
5|4.16.2.2.2 Standardizing Land Information Memoranda|284
3|4.16.3 Planning Instruments|285
4|4.16.3.1 Long-Term Approach and Climate Proofing|285
4|4.16.3.2 Dynamic and Flexible Decision-Making|286
4|4.16.3.3 Changing Jurisdictions in the Coastal Marine Area and the Coastal Environment|287
5|4.16.3.3.1 Coastal Marine Area|287
5|4.16.3.3.2 Coastal Environment|287
4|4.16.3.4 Shortcomings of Implementing Plan Provisions|288
3|4.16.4 Insurance|289
4|4.16.4.1 Transforming the Role of Insurance|289
4|4.16.4.2 The Earthquake Commission´s Role|290
3|4.16.5 Compensation for Managed Retreat|291
4|4.16.5.1 No `Bailout´|291
4|4.16.5.2 Compensation|292
4|4.16.5.3 Right of First Refusal|292
2|4.17 Chapter Conclusion|293
2|References|294
1|Chapter 5: Comparative Aspects and Overall Conclusions|299
2|5.1 Notable Differences|300
3|5.1.1 Coastlines and Coastal Management|300
3|5.1.2 Responsibility for Coastal Adaptation|301
4|5.1.2.1 Responsibilities in Germany|301
4|5.1.2.2 Responsibility in New Zealand|301
4|5.1.2.3 Coinciding and Diverging Responsibilities for Land Use Planning|302
4|5.1.2.4 Sea Level Rise As a Parameter|302
3|5.1.3 Planning Law|303
4|5.1.3.1 Hierarchy and Interrelation of Planning Instruments|303
4|5.1.3.2 Bindingness of Planning Instruments|304
4|5.1.3.3 Relevant Actors|305
4|5.1.3.4 Impact on Individual Projects and Summary|305
3|5.1.4 Local Context|306
4|5.1.4.1 Parameters for Coastal Adaptation|306
4|5.1.4.2 Reflection in the Legal Frameworks|307
5|5.1.4.2.1 Devolution of Responsibility|307
5|5.1.4.2.2 Theoretical Flexibility of New Zealand´s Planning Instruments|308
5|5.1.4.2.3 Uniform Coastal Adaptation in Germany|308
5|5.1.4.2.4 Summary|309
3|5.1.5 Distribution of Funding for Coastal Adaptation|309
4|5.1.5.1 Germany|309
4|5.1.5.2 New Zealand|310
4|5.1.5.3 Linkage to Responsibility for Coastal Adaptation|310
3|5.1.6 Differences in Coastal Hazard Mapping|310
4|5.1.6.1 Differences in Coastal Flood and Erosion Risk Assessment|311
4|5.1.6.2 Use in Planning Law and Judicial Review|311
2|5.2 Distinction Between Land Use Regulation and Expropriation|312
3|5.2.1 Germany|312
4|5.2.1.1 Formal Distinction and Consequences|312
4|5.2.1.2 Wide Discretion of Planning Authorities|312
3|5.2.2 New Zealand|313
4|5.2.2.1 Compulsory Acquisition|313
4|5.2.2.2 Land Use Regulation|315
3|5.2.3 Situational Characteristic of Real Property|316
3|5.2.4 Interim Conclusion|317
2|5.3 State Liability|317
2|5.4 Intersection of Coastal Adaptation and Nature Conservation|318
3|5.4.1 Environmental Impact Assessments and Assessment of Alternatives|318
3|5.4.2 Synergy and Conflict|319
4|5.4.2.1 Germany|319
4|5.4.2.2 New Zealand|320
4|5.4.2.3 Untapped Potential of Multipurpose Adaptation|320
2|5.5 Continued Challenges and Overall Remarks|320
3|5.5.1 Introduction and Section Overview|320
4|5.5.1.1 The Need for Long-Term As Well As Flexible Coastal Adaptation|320
4|5.5.1.2 Current Reflection in the Legal Frameworks|321
4|5.5.1.3 Overview|322
3|5.5.2 Coastal Adaptation As No and Low Regret Actions|322
3|5.5.3 Robust Decision-Making Approach for Climate Change Adaptation|323
3|5.5.4 Existing Instruments Not Used to Full Potential|324
4|5.5.4.1 General|324
4|5.5.4.2 German Particularities|324
4|5.5.4.3 The Role of Tradition and Summary|325
3|5.5.5 Importance of Mandatory Consideration of Sea Level Rise|325
4|5.5.5.1 Specific Requirements|325
4|5.5.5.2 Elected Bodies|326
5|5.5.5.2.1 Short-Term Perspective|326
5|5.5.5.2.2 Manifold Concerns and Responsibilities|326
3|5.5.6 Controversial Decisions, Public Push-Back and the Call for Protection|327
3|5.5.7 Paradigm Shift|329
4|5.5.7.1 Proactive Adaptation|329
4|5.5.7.2 Paradigm Shift Away from Exclusively Technical Solutions|329
3|5.5.8 Opting for Retreat|330
4|5.5.8.1 Existing Obstacles|331
4|5.5.8.2 Decision to Retreat and Compensation As Two Different Issues|331
3|5.5.9 Protection Funded by Public Money|332
3|5.5.10 Avoiding Lock-Ins and Preserving Options for Future Generations|333
3|5.5.11 Coastal Adaptation and Equity/Climate Justice|334
2|5.6 Chapter Summary|336
2|References|337
1|Chapter 6: Concluding Remarks and Outlook|340
2|6.1 Coastal Adaptation in a Wider Context|340
2|6.2 Transition Towards More Resilient Communities|341
2|6.3 The Need for Law|342
2|6.4 Remaining Need for Mitigation|342
2|6.5 Outlook|343
2|6.6 Coastal Adaptation: A Task for Generations|343
2|References|344
1|Table of Legislation|345
2|Germany|345
3|Federal and State Legislation|345
4|Federal|345
4|Bremen|346
4|Hamburg|346
4|Lower Saxony|346
4|Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania|346
4|Schleswig-Holstein|347
4|Other States|347
3|Statutes (Satzungen)|348
3|State Wide and Regional Land Use Plans|348
3|Generalplans on Coastal Protection|348
2|New Zealand|349
3|Legislation|349
3|Planning Instruments|349
3|Determinations|350
2|Other Jurisdictions|350
3|International Conventions|350
2|European Union Law|350
2|The Netherlands|350
1|Table of Cases|351
2|Germany|351
3|Federal Consitutional Court|351
3|Federal Supreme Court|352
3|Federal Administrative Court|352
3|Higher Administrative Courts|353
3|Administrative Courts|353
2|New Zealand|354
3|Supreme Court|354
3|Court of Appeal|354
3|High Court (Including Former `Supreme Court´)|354
3|Environment Court and Former Planning Tribunal|355
2|Other Jurisdictions|357
3|Court of Justice of the European Union|357
3|European Court of Human Rights|357
2|United Kingdom|357
1|Annex I: Important Translated Terms|358
1|Annex II: Terminology of the Main Coastal Adaptation Actions|360
1|Contents|7
1|Abbreviations|21
1|Chapter 1: Introduction|22
2|1.1 Setting the Scene|22
3|1.1.1 Climate Change in the Coastal Context|22
3|1.1.2 The Need for Coastal Adaptation|23
3|1.1.3 Adaptation in a Broader Sense|24
3|1.1.4 The Role of Law|24
2|1.2 Definitions|25
3|1.2.1 Climate and Climate Change|25
3|1.2.2 Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation|26
3|1.2.3 Vulnerability and Resilience|26
3|1.2.4 Hazard, Risk and Hazard Risk|27
3|1.2.5 Coastal Zone|27
3|1.2.6 Coastal Hazards|28
2|1.3 On the Comparative Aspect|28
3|1.3.1 Reasons for Choosing Germany and New Zealand As Examples|28
4|1.3.1.1 Factual Similarities and Differences|28
4|1.3.1.2 Institutional Differences|29
3|1.3.2 Comparative Aspects of This Thesis|30
4|1.3.2.1 The Functional Method and the Presumption of Similarity|30
4|1.3.2.2 Comparison of Overall Concepts|31
2|1.4 Scope of the Thesis|32
3|1.4.1 Purpose of This Work|32
3|1.4.2 Limitations|32
2|References|33
1|Chapter 2: Scientific Background|36
2|2.1 Climate Change and Rising Sea Levels|36
3|2.1.1 Changing Climate|36
3|2.1.2 Global Mean Sea Level Rise|38
3|2.1.3 Tipping Points and Abrupt Changes|38
3|2.1.4 Different Types of Sea Level|39
4|2.1.4.1 Overview|39
4|2.1.4.2 Regional Sea Level Rise Projections for Germany and New Zealand|41
2|2.2 Consequences of Rising Sea Levels|41
3|2.2.1 Coastal Flooding|42
3|2.2.2 Coastal Erosion|43
3|2.2.3 Coastal Squeeze and Other Impacts|43
3|2.2.4 Need for Adaptation|44
3|2.2.5 Predictions for Germany|44
4|2.2.5.1 North Sea|44
4|2.2.5.2 Baltic Sea|45
3|2.2.6 Predictions for New Zealand|46
2|2.3 Examples of Past Coastal Hazard Events|47
3|2.3.1 Storm Surge 1962 at the North Sea|47
3|2.3.2 New Zealand Flood Events in February 2018|47
3|2.3.3 A Worldwide Problem: The Example of Hurricane Katrina|48
2|2.4 Coastal Adaptation Strategies|48
2|2.5 Overview of Coastal Adaptation Actions|49
3|2.5.1 Risk Assessment and Hazard Mapping|50
3|2.5.2 Structural ``Hard´´ Defences|50
3|2.5.3 ``Soft´´ Defences|52
4|2.5.3.1 Dunes|52
4|2.5.3.2 Sand Nourishment|53
4|2.5.3.3 Buffer Zones|54
3|2.5.4 Risk Avoidance|55
3|2.5.5 Accommodation|56
4|2.5.5.1 Flood-Resistant Design|56
4|2.5.5.2 Insurance|56
3|2.5.6 Retreat Strategies|57
4|2.5.6.1 Managed Retreat|57
4|2.5.6.2 Coastal Setbacks|59
2|2.6 General Challenges for Coastal Adaptation to Rising Sea Levels|59
3|2.6.1 Complexity of Coastal Adaptation|59
3|2.6.2 Long-Term Perspective|60
3|2.6.3 Coping with Uncertainty|60
3|2.6.4 Avoiding Maladaptation|61
2|2.7 Intersection with Other Areas and Demands|61
2|2.8 Impact on the State, Its Responsibilities and the Role of Law|62
3|2.8.1 The State´s Role in Coastal Adaptation|62
3|2.8.2 Human Risk Perception|63
3|2.8.3 The Role of Law|64
2|References|65
1|Chapter 3: Legal Framework for Coastal Adaptation to Rising Sea Levels in Germany|73
2|3.1 Introduction|73
3|3.1.1 Overview of Germany´s Legal System|73
4|3.1.1.1 Germany as a Federal State|74
4|3.1.1.2 German Basic Law|74
4|3.1.1.3 European Union Law|75
4|3.1.1.4 Overview Main Legal Instruments|76
3|3.1.2 Climate Change Adaptation in Germany (General Overview)|77
3|3.1.3 General Plans on Coastal Protection (Generalpläne Küstenschutz)|78
2|3.2 Risk Assessment and Hazard Mapping|79
3|3.2.1 Staged Process Under the EU Floods Directive|79
3|3.2.2 Flood Hazard and Flood Risk Maps|80
3|3.2.3 Periodic Review|81
3|3.2.4 Summary and Judicial Review|82
2|3.3 Funding|83
2|3.4 Protect Strategies|84
3|3.4.1 Responsible Agencies for Coastal Protection|84
4|3.4.1.1 The Associations for Dike Maintenance (Deichverbände)|85
4|3.4.1.2 Lower Saxony, Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, and Bremen|86
4|3.4.1.3 Special Responsibilities of the Federal State|87
4|3.4.1.4 Conclusion|87
3|3.4.2 Project Approval Procedure (Planfeststellungsverfahren)|87
4|3.4.2.1 Necessity of a Project Approval Procedure|88
4|3.4.2.2 The Procedure|88
4|3.4.2.3 Judicial Review|89
4|3.4.2.4 Deviating State Provisions|90
3|3.4.3 Calculation of Dike Dimensions|91
3|3.4.4 Safeguarding Space for Future Enhancements|92
3|3.4.5 Maintenance|93
4|3.4.5.1 Responsiblity for Maintenance|94
4|3.4.5.2 Regulations Concerning the Extent of the Obligation to Maintain|94
3|3.4.6 Dunes|95
3|3.4.7 Buffer Zones|96
3|3.4.8 Sand Nourishment|96
4|3.4.8.1 Environmental Impacts and Impairments|97
4|3.4.8.2 Further Regulation on Sand Extraction|98
2|3.5 Property Rights|98
3|3.5.1 Erosion and Accretion|98
4|3.5.1.1 Federal Waterways|99
4|3.5.1.2 Tidally Influenced Rivers at State Level|99
4|3.5.1.3 Summary|100
3|3.5.2 Expropriation (Enteignung)|100
4|3.5.2.1 Federal Building Code|101
4|3.5.2.2 Federal Water Act|101
4|3.5.2.3 State Expropriation Acts and Federal Water Associations Act|103
4|3.5.2.4 Assignment of Ownership (Besitzeinweisung)|104
3|3.5.3 Land Use Regulation|105
2|3.6 Accommodation Strategy|106
3|3.6.1 Flood-Resistant Design|106
4|3.6.1.1 Specific Municipal Land Use Plans and Construction Regulations|106
4|3.6.1.2 Dwelling Mounds and Minimum Floor Levels|107
4|3.6.1.3 Floodplains|108
4|3.6.1.4 General Duty of Care|109
3|3.6.2 Insurance|110
2|3.7 Avoidance: Future Development|111
3|3.7.1 Spatial and Land Use Planning (General)|111
4|3.7.1.1 Important Terms|112
4|3.7.1.2 Spatial Planning Act (ROG)|112
5|3.7.1.2.1 Digression: Spatial Planning and Uncertainty|114
5|3.7.1.2.2 State-Wide and Regional Land Use Plans|115
5|3.7.1.2.3 Regional Planning Procedure|116
4|3.7.1.3 Relationship of the Different Types of Land Use Plans|117
4|3.7.1.4 Land Use Planning|118
3|3.7.2 Priority and Reserve Areas|120
4|3.7.2.1 Overview|120
4|3.7.2.2 Examples|121
4|3.7.2.3 Summary|122
3|3.7.3 Rights of First Refusal|122
3|3.7.4 Temporary Building Permits|123
3|3.7.5 Floodplains|124
2|3.8 Retreat Strategies: Existing Development|124
3|3.8.1 Managed Retreat|125
4|3.8.1.1 General|125
4|3.8.1.2 Implementation|126
4|3.8.1.3 Conflicting Property Rights|126
5|3.8.1.3.1 Grandfathered Rights|127
5|3.8.1.3.2 Expropriation|127
4|3.8.1.4 Positive Obligations|128
5|3.8.1.4.1 Positive Obligations with Regards to Natural Hazards|128
5|3.8.1.4.2 Limitations|129
4|3.8.1.5 Redevelopment of Settlements|130
4|3.8.1.6 Summary|131
3|3.8.2 Coastal Setbacks|131
4|3.8.2.1 Existing Setbacks|131
4|3.8.2.2 Setbacks as Multipurpose Instruments|132
2|3.9 Intersecting Legal Regimes|132
3|3.9.1 Nature Conservation|133
4|3.9.1.1 Protected Areas|134
4|3.9.1.2 Impact Regulation|135
4|3.9.1.3 Nature Conservation as a Parameter for Coastal Adaptation|136
4|3.9.1.4 Environmental Impact Assessment|137
4|3.9.1.5 Obligations to Protect Nature|137
5|3.9.1.5.1 Obligation to Protect the Natural Foundations of Life Under the Basic Law|137
5|3.9.1.5.2 Obligations Under the Federal Nature Conservation Act|138
3|3.9.2 Protection of Historic Monuments|139
2|3.10 State Liability|140
3|3.10.1 General|140
3|3.10.2 Liability for Breach of Official Duty (Amtshaftungsanspruch)|140
4|3.10.2.1 General Requirements|140
4|3.10.2.2 Individualized Groups of People as Third Parties and Land Use Plans|142
3|3.10.3 Intervention of Equivalent Effect to Expropriation (Enteignungsgleicher Eingriff)|143
3|3.10.4 Indirect Expropriation (Enteignender Eingriff)|143
3|3.10.5 Summary|144
2|3.11 Summary|144
2|3.12 Evaluation and Recommendations|145
3|3.12.1 Focus on Technical Flood Protection|146
4|3.12.1.1 Reliance on Technical Solutions|146
4|3.12.1.2 Coordination of Different Actors|149
4|3.12.1.3 Limits of Technical Solutions|150
5|3.12.1.3.1 Factual and Economical Limitations|150
5|3.12.1.3.2 Need for an Integrated Approach|150
3|3.12.2 Different Protection Standards for Different Areas?|151
4|3.12.2.1 The Netherlands and the United Kingdom as Role Models?|152
4|3.12.2.2 Implementation Possibility in Germany|152
5|3.12.2.2.1 Equality Before the Law|153
5|3.12.2.2.2 Protection of Legitimate Expectation (Vertrauensschutz)|154
5|3.12.2.2.3 Suggested Criteria|155
3|3.12.3 Strengthening Adaptation in Planning Law|155
4|3.12.3.1 Spatial Planning|156
4|3.12.3.2 Land Use Planning|157
4|3.12.3.3 Relocatable Buildings|158
5|3.12.3.3.1 No Relocation Requirements in Land Use Plans|159
5|3.12.3.3.2 Temporary Building Permit|159
5|3.12.3.3.3 Relocatable Buildings on Shifting Islands|160
3|3.12.4 Managed Retreat Strategy|160
4|3.12.4.1 Status quo and the Necessity for Enabling Retreat Strategies|161
4|3.12.4.2 Decision on Managed Retreat|162
4|3.12.4.3 Suggested Criteria|163
4|3.12.4.4 Second Dikeline|164
4|3.12.4.5 Summary|164
3|3.12.5 No Voluntary Compensation|164
3|3.12.6 Recommended Changes for Planning and Decision-Making|165
4|3.12.6.1 Long-Term Focus|165
4|3.12.6.2 More Flexibility for Administrative Decisions|166
5|3.12.6.2.1 Coping with Uncertainties|166
5|3.12.6.2.2 Adaptable and Flexible Instruments|167
5|3.12.6.2.3 Examples|168
4|3.12.6.3 Fixed Plan Review Intervals|168
4|3.12.6.4 Summary|169
3|3.12.7 Climate Proofing|169
4|3.12.7.1 Definition and Purpose|170
4|3.12.7.2 Taking into Account Climate Change in Current Instruments|171
4|3.12.7.3 Procedural Aspects|171
4|3.12.7.4 Specialist Planning on Climate Change|172
4|3.12.7.5 `Stress Test´|173
3|3.12.8 Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)|174
3|3.12.9 More Uniformity Through Federal or EU Legislation|175
2|3.13 Chapter Conclusion|176
2|References|178
1|Chapter 4: Legal Framework for Coastal Adaptation to Rising Sea Levels in New Zealand|189
2|4.1 Introduction|189
3|4.1.1 New Zealand as a State|189
3|4.1.2 Overview of the Legal System|191
3|4.1.3 Māori Customary Law and Its Influence on the New Zealand Legal System|191
3|4.1.4 Climate Change Adaptation in New Zealand|192
2|4.2 Background Information|193
3|4.2.1 The Resource Management Act 1991|193
3|4.2.2 Planning Instruments Under the RMA|196
4|4.2.2.1 Terminology|196
4|4.2.2.2 Scope and Hierarchy of Planning Instruments Under the RMA|196
4|4.2.2.3 New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement (NZCPS)|197
4|4.2.2.4 Regional Policy Statements (RPS)|200
4|4.2.2.5 Regional Plans and Regional Coastal Plans|201
4|4.2.2.6 District Plans|202
4|4.2.2.7 Interim Summary|203
4|4.2.2.8 Preparation of Policy Statements and Plans|203
4|4.2.2.9 Appeal to the Environment Court|204
3|4.2.3 Resource Consents|205
4|4.2.3.1 Types of Resource Consents|205
5|4.2.3.1.1 Land Use Consents|205
5|4.2.3.1.2 Subdivision Consents|205
5|4.2.3.1.3 Coastal Permits|206
4|4.2.3.2 Required Information|206
4|4.2.3.3 Decision|207
4|4.2.3.4 Conditions for Resource Consents|208
3|4.2.4 Classes of Activities|210
3|4.2.5 National Government Guidance for Local Government|210
2|4.3 Risk Assessment and Risk Management|212
3|4.3.1 Risk in the NZCPS|213
3|4.3.2 Guidance Manual|214
4|4.3.2.1 Sea Level Rise as a Dynamic Parameter|214
4|4.3.2.2 Specific Recommendations|215
4|4.3.2.3 Flexible and Adaptive Management|215
4|4.3.2.4 Transitional Sea Level Rise Values|216
4|4.3.2.5 Summary|217
3|4.3.3 Risk Assessment in Local Government Planning Instruments|217
3|4.3.4 Levels of Risk|218
4|4.3.4.1 Point of Reference|219
4|4.3.4.2 Examples|220
4|4.3.4.3 Decisions on Acceptable Risk by the Environment Court|220
3|4.3.5 Risk Assessment and Resource Consents|221
3|4.3.6 Summary|221
2|4.4 Funding|221
3|4.4.1 Sources of Revenue of Local Government|222
3|4.4.2 Long-Term Plans|223
3|4.4.3 Annual Plans|223
3|4.4.4 Relationship Between Long-Term and Annual Plans and the RMA Planning Instruments|224
2|4.5 Land Use Planning|224
3|4.5.1 Planning Directives|225
3|4.5.2 Natural Hazards|226
3|4.5.3 Avoiding Development|226
4|4.5.3.1 New Development and Natural Hazards|226
4|4.5.3.2 Inappropriate Development|228
5|4.5.3.2.1 Relevant Provisions|228
5|4.5.3.2.2 The Meaning of `Inappropriate´|228
5|4.5.3.2.3 Inappropriateness and Natural Hazards|229
3|4.5.4 Relocatable Buildings and Structures|229
3|4.5.5 Tsunami Risk|230
3|4.5.6 Building Act 2004|231
4|4.5.6.1 General|231
4|4.5.6.2 Provisions Concerning Natural Hazards|232
3|4.5.7 Information Instruments Connected to Land Use|233
4|4.5.7.1 Land Information Memoranda|234
4|4.5.7.2 Project Information Memoranda|234
3|4.5.8 Summary|235
2|4.6 Coastal Setbacks and Buffer Zones|235
3|4.6.1 Setback Lines and Coastal Hazard Areas|235
4|4.6.1.1 Use of Different Setbacks|236
4|4.6.1.2 Setback Lines as a Controversial Issue|237
3|4.6.2 Buffer Zones|237
2|4.7 Property Rights|239
3|4.7.1 Property Rights and the Common Law Doctrine of Accretion and Erosion|239
3|4.7.2 Expropriation or Compulsory Acquisition|240
3|4.7.3 Property Rights Under the RMA|241
2|4.8 Protect Strategy|242
3|4.8.1 Structural Protection Works|242
4|4.8.1.1 Structural Protection Works on Land|243
4|4.8.1.2 Structural Protection Works Within the Coastal Marine Area (CMA)|244
4|4.8.1.3 Choice, Design, and Dimensions of Structures|246
5|4.8.1.3.1 Non-Statutory Guidelines|246
5|4.8.1.3.2 Site-Specific Expert Reports|247
4|4.8.1.4 Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941|247
4|4.8.1.5 Summary|248
3|4.8.2 Dunes|248
3|4.8.3 Sand Nourishment|250
2|4.9 Managed Retreat|251
3|4.9.1 Managed Retreat and Property Rights|252
3|4.9.2 Implementation Strategies|252
4|4.9.2.1 Methods|253
4|4.9.2.2 Existing Use Rights|254
3|4.9.3 Examples|254
3|4.9.4 Planning Instruments on Managed Retreat|255
2|4.10 Accommodation|256
3|4.10.1 Flood-Resistant Design|256
3|4.10.2 Insurance|257
4|4.10.2.1 General|257
4|4.10.2.2 The Earthquake Commission (EQC)|258
5|4.10.2.2.1 Introduction|258
5|4.10.2.2.2 Coverage|259
5|4.10.2.2.3 Potential Limitations|259
2|4.11 Choosing a Strategy: The Example of Cooks Beach Coastal Erosion Management Strategy|260
2|4.12 Obligations to Protect Against Coastal Hazards|262
3|4.12.1 Obligations Under the RMA|262
3|4.12.2 Positive Obligations Under the Local Government Act|263
3|4.12.3 Positive Obligations Under the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act|264
2|4.13 Intersection with Nature Conservation and Protection of Coastal Landscapes|264
3|4.13.1 Intersection with Nature Conservation|264
4|4.13.1.1 Adverse Effects on the Environment in Resource Consent Applications|265
4|4.13.1.2 Synergies: Coastal Vegetation|266
4|4.13.1.3 Conservation Areas|267
4|4.13.1.4 Special Areas in the Hauraki Gulf|267
3|4.13.2 Intersection with the Protection of Coastal Landscapes|268
2|4.14 Liability|269
3|4.14.1 General|270
3|4.14.2 Tort of Negligence|270
4|4.14.2.1 Duty of Care|271
5|4.14.2.1.1 Proximity and Foreseeability|271
5|4.14.2.1.2 Policy Considerations|272
4|4.14.2.2 Breach|273
4|4.14.2.3 Causation and Remoteness|274
3|4.14.3 Liability for Land Information Memoranda|274
4|4.14.3.1 Duty of Care|274
4|4.14.3.2 Remedy|275
3|4.14.4 Exclusion of Liability|276
3|4.14.5 Summary|276
2|4.15 Summary|277
2|4.16 Evaluation and Recommendations|278
3|4.16.1 Revising Responsibilities Between Central and Local Governments|279
4|4.16.1.1 Lack of National Guidance|279
5|4.16.1.1.1 Existing Instruments|280
5|4.16.1.1.2 Proposed New Instruments|280
4|4.16.1.2 Funding|281
5|4.16.1.2.1 Shared Funding Framework|282
5|4.16.1.2.2 General Challenges for Funding|282
3|4.16.2 Strengthening Local Governments|283
4|4.16.2.1 Clear Mandate for Climate Change Adaptation|283
4|4.16.2.2 Clear Legal Framework on Liability|283
5|4.16.2.2.1 Transferrable Lessons from Australia|284
5|4.16.2.2.2 Standardizing Land Information Memoranda|284
3|4.16.3 Planning Instruments|285
4|4.16.3.1 Long-Term Approach and Climate Proofing|285
4|4.16.3.2 Dynamic and Flexible Decision-Making|286
4|4.16.3.3 Changing Jurisdictions in the Coastal Marine Area and the Coastal Environment|287
5|4.16.3.3.1 Coastal Marine Area|287
5|4.16.3.3.2 Coastal Environment|287
4|4.16.3.4 Shortcomings of Implementing Plan Provisions|288
3|4.16.4 Insurance|289
4|4.16.4.1 Transforming the Role of Insurance|289
4|4.16.4.2 The Earthquake Commission´s Role|290
3|4.16.5 Compensation for Managed Retreat|291
4|4.16.5.1 No `Bailout´|291
4|4.16.5.2 Compensation|292
4|4.16.5.3 Right of First Refusal|292
2|4.17 Chapter Conclusion|293
2|References|294
1|Chapter 5: Comparative Aspects and Overall Conclusions|299
2|5.1 Notable Differences|300
3|5.1.1 Coastlines and Coastal Management|300
3|5.1.2 Responsibility for Coastal Adaptation|301
4|5.1.2.1 Responsibilities in Germany|301
4|5.1.2.2 Responsibility in New Zealand|301
4|5.1.2.3 Coinciding and Diverging Responsibilities for Land Use Planning|302
4|5.1.2.4 Sea Level Rise As a Parameter|302
3|5.1.3 Planning Law|303
4|5.1.3.1 Hierarchy and Interrelation of Planning Instruments|303
4|5.1.3.2 Bindingness of Planning Instruments|304
4|5.1.3.3 Relevant Actors|305
4|5.1.3.4 Impact on Individual Projects and Summary|305
3|5.1.4 Local Context|306
4|5.1.4.1 Parameters for Coastal Adaptation|306
4|5.1.4.2 Reflection in the Legal Frameworks|307
5|5.1.4.2.1 Devolution of Responsibility|307
5|5.1.4.2.2 Theoretical Flexibility of New Zealand´s Planning Instruments|308
5|5.1.4.2.3 Uniform Coastal Adaptation in Germany|308
5|5.1.4.2.4 Summary|309
3|5.1.5 Distribution of Funding for Coastal Adaptation|309
4|5.1.5.1 Germany|309
4|5.1.5.2 New Zealand|310
4|5.1.5.3 Linkage to Responsibility for Coastal Adaptation|310
3|5.1.6 Differences in Coastal Hazard Mapping|310
4|5.1.6.1 Differences in Coastal Flood and Erosion Risk Assessment|311
4|5.1.6.2 Use in Planning Law and Judicial Review|311
2|5.2 Distinction Between Land Use Regulation and Expropriation|312
3|5.2.1 Germany|312
4|5.2.1.1 Formal Distinction and Consequences|312
4|5.2.1.2 Wide Discretion of Planning Authorities|312
3|5.2.2 New Zealand|313
4|5.2.2.1 Compulsory Acquisition|313
4|5.2.2.2 Land Use Regulation|315
3|5.2.3 Situational Characteristic of Real Property|316
3|5.2.4 Interim Conclusion|317
2|5.3 State Liability|317
2|5.4 Intersection of Coastal Adaptation and Nature Conservation|318
3|5.4.1 Environmental Impact Assessments and Assessment of Alternatives|318
3|5.4.2 Synergy and Conflict|319
4|5.4.2.1 Germany|319
4|5.4.2.2 New Zealand|320
4|5.4.2.3 Untapped Potential of Multipurpose Adaptation|320
2|5.5 Continued Challenges and Overall Remarks|320
3|5.5.1 Introduction and Section Overview|320
4|5.5.1.1 The Need for Long-Term As Well As Flexible Coastal Adaptation|320
4|5.5.1.2 Current Reflection in the Legal Frameworks|321
4|5.5.1.3 Overview|322
3|5.5.2 Coastal Adaptation As No and Low Regret Actions|322
3|5.5.3 Robust Decision-Making Approach for Climate Change Adaptation|323
3|5.5.4 Existing Instruments Not Used to Full Potential|324
4|5.5.4.1 General|324
4|5.5.4.2 German Particularities|324
4|5.5.4.3 The Role of Tradition and Summary|325
3|5.5.5 Importance of Mandatory Consideration of Sea Level Rise|325
4|5.5.5.1 Specific Requirements|325
4|5.5.5.2 Elected Bodies|326
5|5.5.5.2.1 Short-Term Perspective|326
5|5.5.5.2.2 Manifold Concerns and Responsibilities|326
3|5.5.6 Controversial Decisions, Public Push-Back and the Call for Protection|327
3|5.5.7 Paradigm Shift|329
4|5.5.7.1 Proactive Adaptation|329
4|5.5.7.2 Paradigm Shift Away from Exclusively Technical Solutions|329
3|5.5.8 Opting for Retreat|330
4|5.5.8.1 Existing Obstacles|331
4|5.5.8.2 Decision to Retreat and Compensation As Two Different Issues|331
3|5.5.9 Protection Funded by Public Money|332
3|5.5.10 Avoiding Lock-Ins and Preserving Options for Future Generations|333
3|5.5.11 Coastal Adaptation and Equity/Climate Justice|334
2|5.6 Chapter Summary|336
2|References|337
1|Chapter 6: Concluding Remarks and Outlook|340
2|6.1 Coastal Adaptation in a Wider Context|340
2|6.2 Transition Towards More Resilient Communities|341
2|6.3 The Need for Law|342
2|6.4 Remaining Need for Mitigation|342
2|6.5 Outlook|343
2|6.6 Coastal Adaptation: A Task for Generations|343
2|References|344
1|Table of Legislation|345
2|Germany|345
3|Federal and State Legislation|345
4|Federal|345
4|Bremen|346
4|Hamburg|346
4|Lower Saxony|346
4|Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania|346
4|Schleswig-Holstein|347
4|Other States|347
3|Statutes (Satzungen)|348
3|State Wide and Regional Land Use Plans|348
3|Generalplans on Coastal Protection|348
2|New Zealand|349
3|Legislation|349
3|Planning Instruments|349
3|Determinations|350
2|Other Jurisdictions|350
3|International Conventions|350
2|European Union Law|350
2|The Netherlands|350
1|Table of Cases|351
2|Germany|351
3|Federal Consitutional Court|351
3|Federal Supreme Court|352
3|Federal Administrative Court|352
3|Higher Administrative Courts|353
3|Administrative Courts|353
2|New Zealand|354
3|Supreme Court|354
3|Court of Appeal|354
3|High Court (Including Former `Supreme Court´)|354
3|Environment Court and Former Planning Tribunal|355
2|Other Jurisdictions|357
3|Court of Justice of the European Union|357
3|European Court of Human Rights|357
2|United Kingdom|357
1|Annex I: Important Translated Terms|358
1|Annex II: Terminology of the Main Coastal Adaptation Actions|360